In-Space Robotics: The Frontier of Automated Satellite Servicing and Emerging Dual-Use Concerns

Rajesh Uppal February 11, 2024 Geopolitics, Space, Threats Comments Off on In-Space Robotics: The Frontier of Automated Satellite Servicing and Emerging Dual-Use Concerns 1,454 Views

Introduction:

In the vast expanse of space, robotic technology has become indispensable for automating various critical operations. One of the most exciting frontiers in space exploration and satellite technology is in-space robotics. These advanced robots are designed to perform tasks in the challenging environment of space, revolutionizing satellite servicing, assembly, and maintenance. However, as countries invest in in-space robotics programs, the dual-use nature of this technology raises concerns about its potential for military applications in the realm of space warfare. In this article, we will explore the remarkable capabilities of in-space robotics, the technologies that enable them, their diverse applications, and the rising threat of space warfare in an increasingly crowded orbital arena.

Need for In-Space Robotics

Building and launching large satellites is a costly business. The production of a single satellite can cost upwards of $290 million, and a satellite launch can range from $50 million to $400 million. The risk associated with these high costs is that any fault or malfunction could render a billion-dollar satellite useless, necessitating expensive replacements. Moreover, space has evolved into a new domain of warfare, with the threat of satellite degradation or destruction looming due to electronic and kinetic attacks by adversaries.

As satellite missions become increasingly complex and costly, the idea of extending the operational lifetime or improving the performance of a satellite in orbit has gained traction. Satellites in orbit often face challenges such as aging components, system degradation, and resource depletion. These challenges can be addressed through satellite on-orbit servicing (OOS) missions.

In OOS missions, service spacecraft equipped with robotic arms are deployed. The process involves rendezvousing with the client spacecraft, gently capturing it, conducting servicing tasks using robotic arms and toolkits, and ultimately releasing the client. Importantly, the client spacecraft can continue its operations during most OOS procedures. Several countries, including the United States, China, Russia, the UK, Israel, and Germany, have planned or initiated OOS missions.

The Advancements in In-Space Robotics:

In-space robotics represents a technological leap in space exploration. These highly advanced robots are equipped with robotic arms, grippers, sensors, and cutting-edge AI systems, enabling them to perform precise and complex tasks. Their applications span from satellite servicing and assembly to debris removal and deep space exploration. For instance, the Canadarm2 on the International Space Station (ISS) showcases the versatility of in-space robotics by capturing and relocating spacecraft, conducting external maintenance, and assisting astronauts during spacewalks. Such robots extend the lifespan of space assets, reduce the need for risky manned missions, and open doors for ambitious space projects.

The U.S. has been at the forefront of OOS development, with companies like Orbital ATK and Maxar Technologies’ SSL division actively involved in building spacecraft for satellite servicing. NASA is also heavily invested in OOS missions through initiatives like Restore-L, aimed at refueling and servicing satellites in orbit. The Space Dynamics Department of Germany’s Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics runs missions like Deutsche Orbitale Servicing (DEOS), demonstrating refueling and module exchange in orbit.

Technologies and Applications:

In-space robotics leverage a range of innovative technologies, including computer vision, machine learning, and advanced materials, to operate effectively in the harsh conditions of space. Computer vision enables robots to identify and manipulate objects with precision, while machine learning algorithms enhance their decision-making capabilities. Additionally, advanced materials are used to build lightweight yet durable robotic components that can withstand extreme temperatures and radiation.

The applications of in-space robotics are diverse and promising. They include satellite servicing, assembly, and maintenance, which can significantly extend the lifespan of costly space assets. These robots are also crucial for cleaning up space debris, which poses a growing threat to active satellites. Furthermore, in-space robotics play a pivotal role in deep space exploration, conducting experiments, repairs, and assembly tasks on distant celestial bodies.

U.S., China, and Russia’s Advanced In-Space Robotics Capabilities

In the rapidly evolving landscape of in-space robotics, the United States, China, and Russia stand out as major players, each with its own set of advanced capabilities and ambitions.

United States: Pioneering Innovation

The United States has long been a leader in space exploration and robotics. NASA, in particular, has played a pivotal role in pushing the boundaries of what is possible with in-space robotics. The agency’s accomplishments include the deployment and repair of the Hubble Space Telescope, the assembly of the International Space Station (ISS), and numerous missions to explore other celestial bodies using robotic spacecraft.

On-orbit Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing 1 (OSAM-1) Mission. OSAM-1 is a robotic spacecraft that will be used to demonstrate the ability to refuel and repair satellites in orbit. The spacecraft is currently scheduled to launch in 2024. NASA has been working on the OSAM-1 Mission for several years. In 2018, NASA awarded a contract to Maxar Technologies to build the spacecraft. In 2019, NASA completed the preliminary design review for the mission. In 2020, NASA completed the critical design review for the mission.
The OSAM-1 spacecraft is currently being assembled at Maxar’s facility in Palo Alto, California. Once the spacecraft is assembled, it will be tested and then shipped to Cape Canaveral, Florida, for launch. The OSAM-1 Mission is a significant development for the space industry. If successful, the OSAM-1 Mission will demonstrate the ability to refuel and repair satellites in orbit. This could save money on launch costs and extend the lifespan of satellites.
U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) – Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites: The DARPA Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites (RSGS) program is developing a robotic spacecraft that can refuel, repair, and upgrade satellites in geosynchronous orbit (GEO). The RSGS program is on track to launch its first mission in 2024. The RSGS program aims to develop a system capable of inspecting, repairing, relocating, and upgrading satellites in geosynchronous orbit to extend their mission lifetimes.
In March 2023, DARPA and Space Logistics signed a contract to integrate the DARPA-developed RSGS robotic payload with Space Logistics’ satellite bus. Space Logistics will also provide launch and operations services for the RSGS mission.

The RSGS robotic payload is being developed by the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). The NRL has completed all component-level tests of the robotic payload, and the payload is now being integrated with the satellite bus.

The RSGS program is a significant development for the US space industry. If successful, the RSGS program will demonstrate the ability to refuel and repair satellites in GEO. This could save money on launch costs and extend the lifespan of satellites.
Northrop Grumman – Mission Extension Vehicle-1 (MEV-1): SpaceLogistics LLC, a subsidiary of Northrop Grumman, has successfully docked its MEV-1 with a commercial communications satellite in February 2020. MEV-1 provides life extension services to satellites by delivering additional fuel and handling orbit maintenance and attitude control functions.
Orbital ATK – On-Orbit Servicing System: Orbital ATK has developed the Mission Extension Vehicle (MEV), with the first MEV docking with the Intelsat-901 satellite in 2019, extending its life for five years. The company plans to establish a fleet of on-orbit servicing vehicles for various space logistics needs, including repair, assembly, refueling, and in-space transportation.

Moreover, NASA’s Restore-L mission is designed to demonstrate satellite servicing capabilities by refueling and servicing government-owned satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO). NASA’s extensive experience in space robotics, including the use of robotic arms on Mars rovers, positions it as a leader in developing advanced in-space robotic technologies.

China: Emerging Competence

China has made significant strides in the field of space exploration and in-space robotics. The China National Space Administration (CNSA) has successfully deployed and operated a series of robotic lunar missions, including the Chang’e series, which have conducted lunar surface exploration and sample return missions. These missions demonstrated China’s ability to operate robotic systems in the challenging lunar environment.

China’s ambition extends to in-space satellite servicing as well. Engineers from the China Academy of Space Technology are developing spacecraft with robotic arms designed to connect to a target satellite, provide attitude control assistance, and push the satellite back into its proper orbit. This technology could significantly extend the lifespan of satellites and reduce space debris.

Key features of this spacecraft include:

Robotic Arms: The spacecraft is equipped with robotic arms, enabling it to connect to a target satellite.
Attitude Control Assistance: Once connected, it provides attitude control assistance to the satellite, allowing it to return to its designated orbit.
Autonomous Operation: After completing its life-extension task with one satellite, the spacecraft autonomously undocks from the target and proceeds to the next satellite in need of assistance.

China’s investment in space robotics aligns with its broader space exploration goals, including crewed lunar missions and building its own space station, further establishing the country as a formidable player in the space arena.

Russia: Dual-Use Challenges

Russia has a rich history in space exploration and has contributed extensively to the development of in-space robotics. However, Russia’s capabilities in this domain have evolved to encompass dual-use technologies, presenting both opportunities and challenges.

Russia has prioritized several key programs:

Burevestnik: This program focuses on developing co-orbital Anti-Satellite (ASAT) capabilities, which could be used to target and disable adversary satellites.
Nivelir: This program is centered around space surveillance and satellite tracking, contributing to Russia’s situational awareness and space domain awareness.
Ekipazh: An ongoing program aimed at developing nuclear-powered space-based electronic warfare capabilities, potentially enabling disruptive actions against satellites and space-based assets.

Since 2010, Russia has been testing technologies for rendezvous and proximity operations in both low Earth and geosynchronous orbits. These technologies can be used for co-orbital anti-satellite (ASAT) operations, raising concerns about potential adversarial behavior in space.

Russia’s on-orbit capabilities include inspection and servicing satellites, which can closely approach and potentially fix malfunctioning satellites. While these capabilities offer peaceful uses, they can also be repurposed for military actions that disrupt or damage adversary satellites.

In July 2020, the U.S. and the UK accused Russia of conducting an anti-satellite weapons test by launching a projectile from a Russian satellite. This action heightened concerns about the weaponization of space and the need for international norms and agreements to prevent the escalation of space-based conflicts.

As in-space robotics capabilities continue to advance, they bring both opportunities for collaboration and challenges related to security and responsible use. The international community must work together to ensure that the benefits of in-space robotics are realized while mitigating the risks of misuse in an increasingly competitive and contested space environment.

Advanced Satellite Inspection and On-Orbit Servicing

The United States, China, and Russia have all developed advanced “inspection satellites” capable of closely maneuvering near other spacecraft in low Earth orbits to examine them for malfunctions. These inspection capabilities are essential for satellite health monitoring and maintenance.

Many countries, including the U.S., China, Russia, the UK, Israel, and Germany, have ambitious plans for satellite on-orbit servicing (OOS) missions. Orbital ATK, in collaboration with Intelsat, pioneered a groundbreaking deal to extend the service life of aging communications satellites. Their first “mission extension vehicle” (MEV-1) launched on a Proton rocket from International Launch Services, marking a significant step in satellite servicing.

Maxar Technologies’ SSL division is a key competitor in this sector, working on space robotic servicing vehicles for NASA and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The SSL division is also involved in NASA’s Restore-L program, which aims to develop a spacecraft for satellite servicing in low Earth orbit, with an initial goal of refueling the Landsat-7 spacecraft. NASA envisions robotic satellites, referred to as “service stations in orbit,” that can not only refuel satellites but also significantly enhance their longevity by addressing maintenance issues as they arise.

Germany’s Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, through the Space Dynamics Department, runs the Deutsche Orbitale Servicing (DEOS) mission. DEOS involves two satellites: a ‘client’ and a ‘servicer.’ The servicer conducts precise maneuvers to rendezvous with the client, demonstrate refueling capabilities, and perform module exchanges. Additionally, the European Space Agency (ESA) has been active in advancing on-orbit servicing technology. The Intermediate Experimental Vehicle (IXV), flown in early 2016, demonstrated critical on-orbit maneuverability capabilities. ESA plans to launch the Program for a Reusable In-orbit Demonstrator from Europe (PRIDE) in 2020, providing a platform for further experimentation and development of on-orbit servicing capabilities.

Recent Developments

The US Space Force is developing the Robotic Servicing Vehicle (RSV), which is scheduled to launch in 2024. The RSV will be able to refuel satellites, repair damaged components, and upgrade satellites with new technologies.

China is developing the China Satellite Servicing Vehicle (CSSV), which is scheduled to launch in 2023. The CSSV will have similar capabilities to the RSV, but it is also expected to be able to deorbit satellites at the end of their lifespan.

Russia is developing the Orbital Service Vehicle (OSV), which is scheduled to launch in 2025. The OSV will have similar capabilities to the RSV and CSSV, but it is also expected to be able to assemble and construct large structures in space.

The development of these robotic spacecraft is a significant development for the space industry. In-space robotics has the potential to revolutionize the way we maintain and operate satellites and other spacecraft. It could also enable new types of space missions that would not be possible with traditional methods.

The Dual-Use Dilemma:

As countries invest heavily in in-space robotics programs, the dual-use nature of this technology raises concerns. In-space robotics designed for peaceful purposes can potentially be repurposed for military applications. Automated satellite on-orbit servicing (OOS) capabilities, a prime focus of many nations, could be adapted for offensive maneuvers, such as satellite capture and manipulation.

The dual-use nature of this technology is a notable consideration. While designed to repair and enhance the functionality of friendly satellites, these same capabilities could be weaponized to potentially degrade or destroy adversary satellites. The vulnerability of satellites in space due to their construction makes them susceptible to attacks such as grapple and crash maneuvers by robotic arms, or even the deployment of lasers and explosives.

This advancement in space capabilities has expanded the scope of space warfare into various domains. It now encompasses ground-to-space warfare, where satellites are targeted from Earth using anti-satellite missiles or directed energy weapons. Space-to-space warfare involves satellites attacking other satellites, while space-to-ground warfare sees satellites targeting Earth-based assets.

Engaging in space warfare, especially as satellites move farther from Earth, poses significant challenges due to the vast distances involved. Targeting and tracking become complex tasks, as even light takes several seconds to traverse the distances measured in hundreds of thousands of kilometers. For instance, firing upon a target at the Moon’s distance from Earth requires accounting for a delay of approximately 1.28 seconds. This complexity is further exemplified by the time it would take for a projectile from a railgun, tested by the U.S. Navy, to cross that distance—over eighteen hours at a constant velocity of 5.8 km/s.

Three factors conspire to make engaging targets in space very difficult. First, the vast distances involved mean that an error of even a fraction of a degree in the firing solution could result in a miss by thousands of kilometers. Second, space travel involves tremendous speeds by terrestrial standards—a geostationary satellite moves at a speed of 3.07 km/s whereas objects in low earth orbit can move at up to 8 km/s. Third, though distances are large, targets remain relatively small. The International Space Station, currently the largest artificial object in Earth orbit, measures slightly over 100m at its largest span. Other satellites can be orders of magnitude smaller, e.g. Quickbird measures a mere 3.04m. Therefore countries including Russia are looking for space to space warfare using killer microsatellites.

The intensifying focus on space-based technologies has spurred a global competition among spacefaring nations to develop killer microsatellites. This new dimension of space warfare involves the use of in-space robotic satellites to target and deorbit adversary satellites. These microsatellites, often equipped with advanced technology, serve as a means to enhance a nation’s strategic capabilities in space.

The same robotic satellites designed for repairing and servicing could potentially be weaponized for offensive purposes, such as degrading or destroying adversary satellites using lasers or explosives. These space-based systems, including microsatellites, have the potential to deliver both temporary and permanent effects against other spacecraft. The payloads of these systems encompass a wide range of capabilities, from kinetic kill vehicles to radiofrequency jammers, lasers, chemical sprayers, high-power microwaves, and various robotic mechanisms. While some of these systems have peaceful applications, such as satellite servicing, repair, and debris removal, they can also be repurposed for military objectives.

These satellites are inherently vulnerable, and space warfare has expanded to include space-to-space warfare, with killer microsatellites being developed for such purposes.

In a world where military activities are increasingly dependent on space assets, the potential for in-space robotics to be employed in space warfare scenarios is a growing concern. The need for international norms and regulations to mitigate these risks is becoming more urgent as the orbital arena becomes crowded with satellites and space debris. Balancing the benefits of in-space robotics with the potential risks of misuse is a complex challenge that requires global cooperation and responsible governance.

Conclusion:

In-space robotics represents a remarkable technological achievement with the potential to reshape space exploration and satellite servicing. However, its dual-use nature raises legitimate concerns about its application in space warfare. As countries continue to develop and deploy these advanced robots, it becomes crucial to establish clear regulations and international norms to ensure their responsible use. Striking the right balance between the benefits of in-space robotics and the risks associated with their misuse is essential for maintaining the peaceful use of outer space and preventing an escalation of conflicts in the final frontier.