Cryogenic electronics is important for a growing number of applications, including superconducting classical computing, superconducting quantum computing and quantum annealing, and superconducting single-photon detector arrays. One of the more difficult aspects about developing a successful superconducting electronics technology at very low temperatures (~10 mK) is the lack of robust commercial …

An X-ray, or, much less commonly, X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10 picometers to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (30×1015 Hz to 30×1018 Hz) and energies in the range 124 eV …