Harnessing the Power of Atomic or Nuclear Batteries: A Sustainable Solution for Future Energy Needs

In the quest for sustainable energy sources, researchers and innovators are turning to atomic, nuclear, or radioisotope batteries as potential game-changers. These advanced energy solutions not only offer promising applications in powering future IoT devices but also present a unique opportunity to address the challenge of nuclear waste disposal. Let’s delve into the fascinating world of atomic batteries and explore their potential to revolutionize energy storage and utilization.

Nuclear power, with its remarkable energy density and minimal carbon footprint, has long tantalized the global community as a potential cornerstone of our energy future. Yet, inherent challenges have impeded its widespread adoption, with geopolitical concerns and safety issues at the forefront of the debate. While the carbon footprint of nuclear fuels is comparatively small, managing the associated waste remains a significant hurdle. However, amidst these challenges, a promising solution emerges: nuclear batteries, also known as atomic or radioisotope batteries.

Understanding Atomic Batteries

Atomic batteries, also known as nuclear batteries or radioisotope batteries, derive their power from the natural process of radioactive decay. Unlike conventional batteries that rely on chemical reactions, atomic batteries harness the energy released from radioactive isotopes to generate electricity. This continuous energy production makes them highly efficient and long-lasting, offering a sustainable power source for various applications.

Solving the Nuclear Waste Conundrum

One of the most intriguing aspects of atomic batteries is their potential to mitigate the issue of nuclear waste. Traditional nuclear power plants produce radioactive waste that poses significant challenges for disposal and storage. However, atomic batteries utilize isotopes with shorter half-lives, meaning they decay more rapidly and produce less long-term radioactive waste. By repurposing these isotopes for energy generation in atomic batteries, we can effectively reduce the environmental impact of nuclear waste and maximize its utility.

Although commonly called batteries, they are technically not electrochemical and cannot be charged or recharged. In comparison they are very costly, but have an extremely long life and high energy density, and so they are mainly used as power sources for equipment that must operate unattended for long periods of time, such as spacecraft, pacemakers, underwater systems and automated scientific stations in remote parts of the world.

Atomic batteries represent a novel approach to tackling the persistent issue of nuclear waste. By harnessing the energy released from radioactive decay, these batteries offer a sustainable alternative to conventional energy sources. Unlike nuclear reactors, atomic batteries do not rely on chain reactions, minimizing the risk of proliferation and enhancing safety. While initial costs may be higher, their extended lifespan and high energy density make them ideal for powering equipment in remote or unmanned environments.

The Evolution of Nuclear Battery Technology

The concept of nuclear batteries dates back to the 1950s when Paul Rappaport proposed using semiconducting materials to convert the energy of beta decay into electricity. Batteries powered by beta decay, known as betavoltaics, boast higher energy density and endurance in harsh conditions compared to conventional chemical batteries. Despite their lower power density, betavoltaics found early applications in powering cardiac pacemakers and remote scientific stations.

Nuclear batteries offer a promising solution to the challenge of managing nuclear waste, harnessing the decay of radioactive isotopes to generate electricity without the need for a chain reaction, unlike nuclear reactors. The concept of using semiconducting materials to convert the energy of beta decay into electricity was first proposed by Paul Rappaport in 1953. Beta particles emitted by a radioactive source ionize atoms within a semiconductor, creating charge carriers that generate an electric current when directed by a p-n structure. These batteries, known as betavoltaics, distinguish themselves from chemical batteries by offering higher volumetric energy density and enhanced durability in harsh environments.

While conventional chemical batteries excel at delivering high power outputs over short periods, nuclear batteries stand out for their longevity. Utilizing radioactive isotopes with half-lives spanning decades to centuries, nuclear batteries maintain nearly constant power output for extended periods. Despite their lower power density compared to chemical batteries, betavoltaics have found applications, including powering cardiac pacemakers in the past. Recent advancements in semiconductor materials have revitalized interest in betavoltaics, allowing for more efficient energy conversion with less hazardous isotopes like tritium. Moreover, innovative approaches such as using carbon isotopes in diamond-based batteries present new possibilities for long-lasting power sources with minimal environmental impact. By encapsulating radioactive carbon-14 in a non-radioactive diamond shell, these batteries can generate electricity for millennia, offering a durable and safe energy solution for various applications, including medical implants.

Innovations and Applications

Recent advancements have propelled nuclear battery technology into the spotlight once again. Companies like Widetronix and City Labs are pioneering the development of next-generation betavoltaic cells, leveraging improved semiconducting materials for greater efficiency and safety. These batteries have diverse applications, from powering military equipment and implantable medical devices to monitoring volcanic activity and space exploration.

Diamond Batteries: A Game-Changer in Energy Storage

One particularly innovative approach involves the use of carbon isotopes in the form of diamonds. Researchers at the University of Bristol have devised a method to harness the radioactive decay of carbon-14, a byproduct of nuclear power generation, to create diamond batteries. These batteries boast an impressive lifespan of thousands of years, offering a sustainable and long-lasting energy solution. Encased in non-radioactive diamond shells, they ensure safety and durability in various applications, including medical implants and space missions.

Applications

Nuclear batteries offer groundbreaking solutions across various domains, revolutionizing energy sources for applications ranging from space exploration to implantable medical devices and beyond. In the realm of IoT, where integrated, miniaturized, and low-energy wireless nodes are essential, nuclear batteries promise to extend device lifetimes dramatically. With advancements driving down manufacturing costs, the potential arises for cord-free operation of IoT devices for hundreds of years on a single charge, presenting a paradigm shift in sustainable energy storage.

In space exploration, where longevity and reliability are paramount, traditional energy sources like solar power fall short in the outer reaches of the solar system. NASA relies on Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs), a form of nuclear battery technology, to power spacecraft on missions lasting over a decade. Similarly, in the medical field, nuclear batteries find application in implantable medical devices such as pacemakers and hearing aids, where reliability over extended periods without maintenance is critical. Recent advancements in safety have reignited interest in betavoltaic cells for medical implants, offering a compelling advantage in battery life over conventional alternatives. Moreover, emerging innovations such as nuclear diamond batteries hold promise for diverse applications, from monitoring volcanic activity to powering sensors in remote or hazardous environments, heralding a future where battery replacement becomes a rarity compared to device turnover.

Powering Future IoT Devices

The proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices across industries has created a growing demand for reliable, long-lasting power sources. Atomic batteries offer a compelling solution, providing continuous energy supply for IoT sensors, monitoring systems, and communication devices. With their extended lifespan measured in decades, atomic batteries can sustainably power IoT networks without the need for frequent maintenance or replacement. This not only enhances the efficiency and reliability of IoT applications but also reduces their environmental footprint.

Military Applications and National Security

Beyond civilian applications, atomic batteries hold significant promise for military and defense purposes. From unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to missile guidance systems, military technologies require compact yet powerful energy sources to operate effectively in remote or hostile environments. Atomic batteries offer a compact and dependable power solution for military applications, ensuring continuous operation and reducing logistical challenges associated with battery replacement. Moreover, their longevity and reliability enhance national security by minimizing the risk of power failure in critical defense systems.

Nuclear Battery Technology

Radioactive Thermoelectric Generator (RTG): RTGs utilize heat generated from radioactive substances, known as beta decay, to produce electricity. Despite their poor efficiency and low power density, advancements like NASA’s Enhanced Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (eMMRTG) are improving performance, enhancing efficiency, and conserving rare resources like plutonium.

Betavoltaic Cells: Betavoltaic cells harness the energy from beta decay, often using isotopes like tritium, making them suitable for small devices. Despite their low power output compared to chemical batteries, they offer sustainability by repurposing nuclear waste. Challenges persist in meeting power demands for consumer electronics. According to Jonathane Greene, the CEO of Widetronix which manufactures betavoltaic cells, a package that is one centimeter-squared wide and two-tenths of a centimeter tall generates one microwatt of power.  In comparison, a smartphone using 50% CPU, Wi-Fi connection, and white display will use 1857 mW, so a nuclear battery is not suitable for consumer electronics.

Aqueous Nuclear Battery: Utilizing liquid mediums for energy conversion, this battery absorbs beta particle kinetic energy. With high efficiency and lower operating temperatures, it offers promising energy levels, potentially outperforming solid-state materials. Baek Hyun Kim and Jae Won Kwon at University of Missouri published a paper in 2014 proposing one possible next generation nuclear battery technology. Aqueous Nuclear Battery, which is also known as water-based nuclear battery, uses liquid medium for radiolysis, absorbing the kinetic energy of beta particles which is lost in betavoltaic cells. In Kim and Kwon’s design using nanoporous titanium dioxide semiconductors coated in platinum, a high efficiency of 53.88% was reached at a potential of 0.9 volts. Using an aqueous solution for radiolytic energy conversion results in higher energy level and lower temperature than using a solid state material does.

Diamond Nuclear Battery: This innovative technology transforms radioactive carbon-14 into artificial diamonds, generating a constant electric current. Despite lower energy density compared to conventional batteries, it offers an unprecedented lifespan, with potential applications in medical implants and beyond.

A man-made diamond generates an electric current when placed in a radiation field, and a diamond made of C-14 produces a radioactive field spontaneously. Hence, the diamond battery can create a constant electric current as long as it remains radioactive. Although C-14 can deliver only 15 joules per gram (compared to 700 joules per gram of standard alkaline battery), the C-14 diamond battery can generate power for 7746 years before reaching 50% charge (compared to a single day usage of standard alkaline battery). The C-14 diamond can be encapsulated in a non-radioactive diamond shell which will block all radiation and protect the battery under harsh conditions.  The resulting battery is made of the hardest material on Earth, so the industry might finally overcome the psychological resistance of sensitive clients such as patients using IMDs.

Nano-Diamond Batteries by NDB: NDB’s nano-diamond batteries utilize radioactive waste, encased in layers of synthetic diamonds for safety. They offer longevity, efficiency, and versatility, catering to diverse needs from electric cars to space missions, while promoting sustainability by repurposing nuclear waste.

Classification

Thermal conversion

Thermionic conversion

A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode, which thermionically emits electrons over a space-charge barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful power output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface ionization) to neutralize the electron space charge.

Thermoelectric conversion

Radioisotope-powered cardiac pacemaker being developed by the Atomic Energy Commission, is planned to stimulate the pulsing action of a malfunctioning heart. Circa 1967. A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) uses thermocouples. Each thermocouple is formed from two wires of different metals (or other materials). A temperature gradient along the length of each wire produces a voltage gradient from one end of the wire to the other; but the different materials produce different voltages per degree of temperature difference. By connecting the wires at one end, heating that end but cooling the other end, a usable, but small (millivolts), voltage is generated between the unconnected wire ends. In practice, many are connected in series (or in parallel) to generate a larger voltage (or current) from the same heat source, as heat flows from the hot ends to the cold ends. Metal thermocouples have low thermal-to-electrical efficiency. However, the carrier density and charge can be adjusted in semiconductor materials such as bismuth telluride and silicon germanium to achieve much higher conversion efficiencies.

Thermophotovoltaic conversion

Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cells work by the same principles as a photovoltaic cell, except that they convert infrared light (rather than visible light) emitted by a hot surface, into electricity. Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermoelectric couples and can be overlaid on thermoelectric couples, potentially doubling efficiency. The University of Houston TPV Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology development effort is aiming at combining thermophotovoltaic cells concurrently with thermocouples to provide a 3- to 4-fold improvement in system efficiency over current thermoelectric radioisotope generators.

 

Stirling generators

A Stirling radioisotope generator is a Stirling engine driven by the temperature difference produced by a radioisotope. A more efficient version, the advanced Stirling radioisotope generator, was under development by NASA, but was cancelled in 2013 due to large-scale cost overruns.

 

Non-thermal conversion

Non-thermal converters extract energy from emitted radiation before it is degraded into heat. Unlike thermoelectric and thermionic converters their output does not depend on the temperature difference. Non-thermal generators can be classified by the type of particle used and by the mechanism by which their energy is converted.

Electrostatic conversion

Energy can be extracted from emitted charged particles when their charge builds up in a conductor, thus creating an electrostatic potential. Without a dissipation mode the voltage can increase up to the energy of the radiated particles, which may range from several kilovolts (for beta radiation) up to megavolts (alpha radiation). The built up electrostatic energy can be turned into usable electricity in one of the following ways.

 

Direct-charging generator

A direct-charging generator consists of a capacitor charged by the current of charged particles from a radioactive layer deposited on one of the electrodes. Spacing can be either vacuum or dielectric. Negatively charged beta particles or positively charged alpha particles, positrons or fission fragments may be utilized. Although this form of nuclear-electric generator dates back to 1913, few applications have been found in the past for the extremely low currents and inconveniently high voltages provided by direct-charging generators. Oscillator/transformer systems are employed to reduce the voltages, then rectifiers are used to transform the AC power back to direct current.

 

English physicist H. G. J. Moseley constructed the first of these. Moseley’s apparatus consisted of a glass globe silvered on the inside with a radium emitter mounted on the tip of a wire at the center. The charged particles from the radium created a flow of electricity as they moved quickly from the radium to the inside surface of the sphere. As late as 1945 the Moseley model guided other efforts to build experimental batteries generating electricity from the emissions of radioactive elements.

 

Electromechanical conversion

Electromechanical atomic batteries use the buildup of charge between two plates to pull one bendable plate towards the other, until the two plates touch, discharge, equalizing the electrostatic buildup, and spring back. The mechanical motion produced can be used to produce electricity through flexing of a piezoelectric material or through a linear generator. Milliwatts of power are produced in pulses depending on the charge rate, in some cases multiple times per second (35 Hz).[8]

 

Radiovoltaic conversion

A radiovoltaic (RV) device converts the energy of ionizing radiation directly into electricity using a semiconductor junction, similar to the conversion of photons into electricity in a photovoltaic cell. Depending on the type of radiation targeted, these devices are called alphavoltaic (AV, αV), betavoltaic (BV, βV) and/or gammavoltaic (GV, γV). Betavoltaics have traditionally received the most attention since (low-energy) beta emitters cause the least amount of radiative damage, thus allowing a longer operating life and less shielding. Interest in alphavoltaic and (more recently) gammavoltaic devices is driven by their potential higher efficiency.

 

Alphavoltaic conversion

Alphavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic alpha particles.

Betavoltaic conversion

Betavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic beta particles (electrons). A commonly used source is the hydrogen isotope tritium. Betavoltaic devices are particularly well-suited to low-power electrical applications where long life of the energy source is needed, such as implantable medical devices or military and space applications.

Gammavoltaic conversion

Gammavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic gamma particles (high-energy photons). They have only recently (in the 2010s) been considered. A gammavoltaic effect has been reported in perovskite solar cells. Another patented design involves scattering of the gamma particle until its energy has decreased enough to be absorbed in a conventional photovoltaic cell. Gammavoltaic designs using diamond and Schottky diodes are also being investigated.

Radiophotovoltaic (optoelectric) conversion

In a radiophotovoltaic (RPV) device the energy conversion is indirect: the emitted particles are first converted into light using a radioluminescent material (a scintillator or phosphor), and the light is then converted into electricity using a photovoltaic cell. Depending on the type of particle targeted, the conversion type can be more precisely specified as alphaphotovoltaic (APV or α-PV), betaphotovoltaic (BPV or β-PV) or gammaphotovoltaic (GPV or γ-PV).

Radiophotovoltaic conversion can be combined with radiovoltaic conversion to increase the conversion efficiency.

Radioisotopes used

Atomic batteries use radioisotopes that produce low energy beta particles or sometimes alpha particles of varying energies. Low energy beta particles are needed to prevent the production of high energy penetrating Bremsstrahlung radiation that would require heavy shielding. Radioisotopes such as tritium, nickel-63, promethium-147, and technetium-99 have been tested. Plutonium-238, curium-242, curium-244 and strontium-90 have been used.

Micro-batteries: These miniature batteries exploit radioactive nuclei to produce electricity, enabling long-term power supply without refueling. With applications ranging from MEMS devices to nanotechnology, they offer wireless communication capabilities and serve as lightweight power sources for various devices.

 

 

 

 

 

Russian scientists have developed a groundbreaking nuclear battery prototype that surpasses conventional energy sources in both efficiency and power output.

Led by Vladimir Blank, the team achieved a significant advancement by utilizing nickel-63 as a radiation source and Schottky barrier-based diamond diodes for energy conversion. This innovative approach resulted in a battery with a power density nearly ten times higher than previous models, boasting an output power of about 1 microwatt and a density of 10 microwatts per cubic centimeter. With nickel-63’s half-life of 100 years, the battery offers an impressive energy density of approximately 3,300 milliwatt-hours per gram, outstripping commercial chemical cells by a factor of ten.

The implications of this breakthrough extend across various domains, from medical applications to space exploration. In the medical field, the nuclear battery holds promise for powering devices like cardiac pacemakers without the need for frequent battery replacements or maintenance. With modern pacemakers requiring around 10 microwatts of power, the new battery’s output aligns perfectly with these requirements, potentially enhancing patient quality of life through the development of “perpetual pacemakers.” Similarly, in the space industry, compact nuclear batteries offer a transformative solution for powering autonomous wireless sensors and memory chips in spacecraft. Leveraging the radiation-proof properties of diamond, coupled with its ability to operate across a wide temperature range, these batteries present an ideal power supply system for space missions, heralding a new era of innovation and efficiency in space technology.

Researchers from NUST MISIS have introduced an innovative atomic battery boasting a remarkable increase in power output by tenfold, coupled with a substantial reduction in size and cost.

By leveraging a patented microchannel 3D structure for the beta-voltaic element, the battery achieves unparalleled efficiency in converting beta radiation into electricity. This unique design, featuring a planar p-n junction with the radioactive element applied on both sides, enhances conversion area and mitigates power loss from reverse current, resulting in a significant boost in output parameters.

The novel battery design demonstrates impressive electrical performance, with short-circuit currents and power outputs surpassing conventional planar constructions by orders of magnitude. This advancement not only promises a 50% reduction in production costs but also enables a tenfold increase in specific power, leading to a threefold reduction in weight and dimensions while maintaining output power levels. With applications ranging from emergency power supplies to temperature sensors in extreme environments such as space, underwater, and high-altitude areas, the battery offers versatile functionality in various industries.

NUST MISIS’s pioneering development has garnered international recognition, positioning the university as a key player in the global betavoltaic batteries market alongside renowned companies. The battery’s small size, safety features, and long service life align with growing demand across industries, promising to capture a significant share of the power supply market. Looking ahead, the team aims to further enhance the battery’s design to maximize power density and advance industrial-scale production methods, ensuring widespread availability of this groundbreaking technology in the coming years.

Widetronix specializes in betavoltaic batteries powered by the decay of tritium, offering long-lasting energy solutions for various applications.

Tritium undergoes beta decay, emitting high-energy electrons that drive the battery. By loading the battery with twice the required tritium, Widetronix ensures a 25-year lifespan, making them ideal for medical implants and military sensing in extreme conditions. These batteries feature a metal foil infused with tritium isotopes and a silicon carbide semiconductor chip, converting beta particles into electrical current efficiently.

Although betavoltaics lack the power for devices like laptops or phones, their high energy density and long lifespan make them valuable for specific uses, such as military equipment monitoring. Lockheed Martin collaborates with Widetronix to develop higher-power betavoltaics for remote missile monitoring, meeting stringent military specifications. Additionally, partnerships with medical-device companies like Welch Allyn aim to integrate betavoltaics into implants, ensuring reliable, long-term power sources for medical devices.

Looking ahead, the potential of betavoltaics lies in inexpensive, long-lasting sensors for infrastructure applications. However, this would necessitate advancements in using longer half-life materials like nickel isotopes, requiring infrastructure development for isotope production. Despite challenges, tritium’s accessibility from Canadian nuclear reactors offers a cost-effective solution, highlighting the need for renewed investment in radioisotope infrastructure to unlock the full potential of perpetual battery technologies.

A Chinese startup named Betavolt has developed a coin-sized nuclear battery called BV100, claiming it can generate electricity for up to 50 years without needing to be charged.

This breakthrough battery technology utilizes a decaying radioactive isotope of nickel (Ni-63) and single-crystal diamond semiconductor sheets. Betavolt boasts of the battery’s high energy density, which is reportedly more than ten times that of conventional lithium batteries. The battery, measuring 151515 millimeters, provides 100 microwatts of power and 3 volts of voltage. While its capacity may be low for charging devices like smartphones, Betavolt suggests using multiple BV100 batteries in series or parallel combinations. Despite its nuclear nature, the company assures that the battery is safe for civilian use, with no external radiation and resistance to fire and explosions. Betavolt plans to mass-produce the BV100 battery soon, aiming to revolutionize energy storage and power supply for various applications, including medical devices and drones.

Challenges

While nuclear batteries hold immense promise, challenges remain on the path to widespread adoption. Regulatory hurdles, public perception, and the availability of isotopes are among the key considerations. However, ongoing research and innovation continue to push the boundaries of nuclear battery technology, paving the way for a cleaner, greener energy future.

Regulatory and Safety Considerations

While atomic batteries offer numerous benefits, their use also raises important regulatory and safety considerations. Proper handling, storage, and disposal of radioactive isotopes are essential to prevent environmental contamination and ensure public safety. Regulatory frameworks must be established to govern the production, deployment, and decommissioning of atomic batteries, with strict adherence to safety protocols and radiation protection measures.

Conclusion: A Sustainable Energy Future

In conclusion, atomic batteries represent a groundbreaking technology with the potential to revolutionize energy storage and utilization. By harnessing the power of atomic decay, these batteries offer a viable solution to the dual challenges of energy production and nuclear waste management.

By harnessing the power of nuclear decay, these advanced batteries offer a sustainable solution for powering future IoT devices, military technologies, and more. Moreover, their ability to mitigate nuclear waste and reduce environmental impact underscores their importance in shaping a cleaner, greener energy future. With continued investment and collaboration, nuclear batteries have the potential to revolutionize our energy landscape, powering everything from medical implants to deep space exploration missions. As we embrace this promising technology, we embark on a journey towards a brighter, more sustainable future for generations to come.