The 3D Printing Race in Space: On-Orbit Manufacturing of Satellite Components for Exploration and Security

3D Printing in Space: How In-Orbit Manufacturing is Changing Exploration and Defense

Discover how space-based 3D printing is revolutionizing exploration and military security, building the future layer by layer.

The space frontier is evolving rapidly—and so is the way we build for it. As humanity prepares for deeper and longer missions in space, the next big leap isn’t just in propulsion systems or deep-space navigation. It’s in how we manufacture. At the heart of this transformation lies 3D printing in space—a disruptive technology that could reshape everything from satellite deployment to space security.

Why 3D Printing in Space?

Launching heavy, fully assembled satellites from Earth is both costly and risky. Traditional launch logistics require that spacecraft be rugged enough to survive the extreme vibrations and forces of liftoff, often resulting in over-engineering and inefficiencies.

3D printing, or additive manufacturing, offers an elegant solution. Instead of sending bulky hardware, space agencies and private companies can transport compact raw materials and print parts directly in orbit. This approach significantly reduces launch mass, allowing missions to be more economical and flexible.

The NASA rule-of-thumb is that every unit mass of payload launched requires the support of an additional 99 units of mass, with “support” encompassing everything from fuel to oxygen to food and medicine for the astronauts, etc. Given the technical challenges and costs associated with leaving Earth and landing on planetary bodies (e.g., in the order of $300,000 per kg sent to Mars, sending all consumables needed to sustain crews is unrealistic in the long term

The critical benefit of utilizing additive manufacturing for space applications is that it can be employed to significantly decrease the mass of components. Additive manufacturing methods can be utilized to conveniently hollow out components with closed cells, pockets, and holes to drastically reduce the mass of components. In contrast, subtractive manufacturing almost always creates ‘solid’ components of uniform density. Weight reductions of an astounding 70% have been evidenced for satellite components created by AM. This is not a trivial matter as the reduction of the mass of satellite components significantly decreases the amount of fuel needed to launch the satellite and to maneuver it upon reaching orbit.

Furthermore, manufacturing components in a microgravity environment eliminates many structural constraints imposed by gravity, enabling the creation of complex, lightweight designs that would be impossible to fabricate on Earth. The “zero-g” environment of space orbit opens doors to print materials not possible under the influence of earthly gravity, parts, and spares can be printed on-demand, and structures can be built that wouldn’t survive the stresses of launch. For example, we can make a spiderweb-like structure that can hold and stabilize its own weight in space. But if you put it down on the ground, it would collapse under the weight of its own mass.

Another advantage lies in responsiveness. If a part fails or a mission needs to be extended or modified, new components can be printed on demand. This agility could prove vital in long-duration missions or for military applications where timing is critical. Finally, from a security perspective, the ability to build or even modify satellites in orbit adds an unprecedented layer of stealth and resilience—key traits in an era where space is becoming increasingly contested.

On-Orbit Satellite Manufacturing: A New Paradigm

Picture a compact payload of raw materials and autonomous robotic printers being launched into low Earth orbit. Once deployed, these machines get to work printing structural elements, sensor housings, or high-gain communication antennae.

The space industry stands at the brink of a manufacturing revolution as 3D printing technology transitions from experimental novelty to mission-critical infrastructure. What began modestly with simple plastic part production aboard the International Space Station has blossomed into sophisticated metal printing capabilities that may ultimately enable humanity’s interplanetary future. Recent technological breakthroughs demonstrate we’re entering an unprecedented era where satellites self-assemble in orbit, lunar bases print their own habitats from local materials, and Mars-bound astronauts manufacture spare parts during their long journey through the cosmos.

NASA’s Artemis program provides compelling evidence of this transition, having already deployed over 100 certified 3D-printed components in its Orion spacecraft. Private aerospace companies are pushing these boundaries even further – Relativity Space has made headlines with its fully 3D-printed Terran R rocket, while established players like Airbus now routinely print hundreds of components for their satellites. Across the Atlantic, the European Space Agency has pioneered printing satellite components in high-performance PEEK thermoplastic, embedding conductive pathways directly into structural elements. Meanwhile, China’s successful 2024 microgravity printing tests with carbon-fiber composites underscore how this capability is rapidly becoming a global priority in spacefaring nations.

In military terms, this flexibility is crucial. It allows for rapid-response capabilities during conflict, redundancy in the face of asset loss, and even the discreet deployment of sensitive or classified payloads. In space, where the margin for error is slim and the stakes are high, such capabilities can determine strategic dominance.

Autonomous operation presents another hurdle. Printing systems must function reliably with minimal human oversight, which means integrating advanced sensors, machine learning, and fault-tolerant design principles. Nonetheless, progress is being made. Engineers are developing space-rated polymers, radiation-hardened composites, and metal powders tailored for vacuum conditions. As material science evolves, so too will the range of components that can be reliably produced in orbit.

The gravity in space is 88% of Earth’s gravity. There is also no air in space. The biggest difference in space is that we don’t have the benefit of gravity to help us put things where we want to put them, so we have to rely on other forces to do the depositing of material. Though the basic design of a 3D printer stays the same, printing in zero gravity requires special considerations. For one thing, without gravity to hold liquid layers together before they cool, the material itself must be sticky between layers. Due to the lack of gravity, 3D printers need to find a way to hold parts into place and keep layers together during the FDM process. There have been some recorded cases of 3D printed tools getting stuck onto build plates to the point that the part was damaged and even the printer. Also, in a zero-gravity environment, we don’t have any natural convection like air currents that move naturally to help with cooling. So we have to build thermal control into the 3D printing system to keep the hot parts hot and the cool parts cool.

Space 3D Printing Technologies

The unique environment of space presents formidable obstacles to traditional manufacturing processes, but recent missions have made significant progress in solving these challenges.

At the heart of space-based manufacturing is a technique called Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) or Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)—a process that has proven both reliable and manageable in microgravity. “We used a filament deposition modeling process,” explained Quincy Bean, Principal Investigator for NASA’s 3D Printing in Zero-G Project. “The process works by taking a plastic filament which is extruded through a hot tip—basically it’s like a computer-controlled hot glue gun—which heats up the plastic almost to melting point to get it malleable.” This method, commonly used by Earth-based printers from companies like Makerbot and 3D Systems, was chosen for its simplicity and stability in the unpredictable environment of space.

The selection of filament-based printing wasn’t arbitrary. In microgravity, materials behave differently than they do on Earth. Powder-based additive manufacturing requires a flat bed of material, which becomes impossible without gravity—turning neatly layered powder into chaotic clouds. Liquid resins pose similar challenges; a vat of resin in space becomes a floating, unusable blob. “The filament is very easy to control in zero gravity,” Bean noted, which makes it ideal for the confined and sensitive conditions aboard spacecraft like the International Space Station.

That said, even this relatively simple process comes with challenges. For instance, parts sometimes adhere too well to the build plate, making removal difficult. And when it comes to printing with multiple materials or complex geometries, limitations remain. Yuan Jiahu, president of China’s CIGIT institute, noted that their own space-capable 3D printer still struggles with producing intricate shapes using multiple materials. However, the device has already shown great promise. “Once we make breakthroughs in these areas, we can start fully using this 3D-printer for high-end applications in space,” Jiahu added.

Cutting-Edge Materials and Applications

To overcome these challenges, researchers are developing specially formulated materials and new technologies designed for the space environment. Metal printing and ceramic fabrication are moving beyond basic plastic prototypes, allowing the creation of durable, heat-resistant, and radiation-hardened parts suitable for space missions. For example, advanced composite materials like carbon-fiber reinforced polymers have been tested in microgravity, enabling stronger yet lighter structures that wouldn’t be possible on Earth. NASA and private companies are also developing polymers that bond properly without gravity’s help, while active thermal control systems manage heat in the vacuum of space. Meanwhile, robotic assembly technologies—like the Archinaut system—combine precision manipulators with 3D printers to build large structures, such as antennas and solar arrays, directly in orbit. Together, these innovations are paving the way for a new era where space hardware is printed and assembled in space, reducing dependency on Earth-based manufacturing and enabling more agile, sustainable space exploration.

Material innovation is driving the space 3D printing revolution. The European Space Agency’s work with PEEK thermoplastics enables printing conductive pathways directly into satellite structures, while China’s successful tests with carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers in microgravity open new possibilities for durable space structures. NASA and Made In Space (now Redwire) have expanded from plastics to metal and ceramic printing aboard the ISS, with the Archinaut system combining 3D printing with robotic assembly for large-scale orbital construction. Bioprinting collaborations like Allevi’s ZeroG extruder point toward future medical applications in space, highlighting the technology’s expanding role in supporting long-duration missions.

New polymer formulations have been developed specifically to ensure proper layer bonding in the absence of gravity, addressing what was once a fundamental limitation of space-based additive manufacturing. Thermal management systems have evolved to compensate for the lack of natural convection in microgravity, incorporating active cooling solutions that maintain optimal printing conditions.

The extreme precision requirements of space-grade components have driven advancements in quality control systems capable of detecting microscopic defects during the printing process. Environmental concerns have led to the development of closed-loop systems that prevent the release of microplastic debris into the orbital environment. The Chinese Academy of Sciences’ successful 2024 tests, which printed complex tools during parabolic flights, demonstrate how far these technologies have progressed. Similarly, NASA’s ReFabricator unit has proven the feasibility of plastic recycling aboard the ISS – a critical capability for long-duration missions where resupply opportunities are limited.

Cutting-Edge Applications Beyond Earth

Orbital Satellite Factories

The satellite is not launched complete from Earth—it is manufactured and activated on-site.  The once-fanciful vision of in-space manufacturing is rapidly becoming operational reality through several groundbreaking projects. NanoRacks’ innovative Stash & Deploy system represents a paradigm shift, caching standardized satellite components aboard the ISS for on-demand assembly using Made In Space’s additive manufacturing facility. This approach could dramatically reduce the time between satellite design and orbital deployment.

This concept is already in testing phases. DARPA’s Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites (RSGS) program aims to combine robotics with additive manufacturing to produce modular satellite systems. These systems can be upgraded, expanded, or repaired directly in orbit, providing a level of adaptability that traditional platforms simply cannot match.

More ambitious still is the Archinaut system, a robotic 3D printer equipped with precision manipulator arms capable of constructing large structures in the vacuum of space. Meanwhile, Tethers Unlimited’s SpiderFab technology promises to revolutionize space infrastructure with its capability to fabricate enormous kilometer-scale antennas and solar arrays in orbit. These systems collectively demonstrate how 3D printing solves the fundamental “tyranny of the rocket equation” by enabling ultra-compact payloads that can expand dramatically once in space. A single launch can now carry the equivalent of multiple complete satellites when transporting raw materials rather than pre-built components.

Lunar and Martian Infrastructure

NASA’s ambitious Moon-to-Mars initiative has placed in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) at the forefront of its technology development priorities. Recent tests have successfully demonstrated 3D printing using simulated lunar regolith, marking a critical step toward sustainable off-world habitation. This technology addresses two of the most daunting challenges facing permanent extraterrestrial bases.

First, printed regolith structures could provide vital radiation shielding, protecting habitats from the constant barrage of cosmic rays that pose health risks to astronauts. Second, using local materials dramatically reduces the need to transport massive quantities of building materials from Earth – a logistical and financial breakthrough. The private sector is complementing these efforts through metal printing innovations like Additive Friction Stir Deposition (AFSD), with DARPA investing $1 million in Virginia Tech research to develop autonomous repair capabilities for use in space. These parallel developments highlight how 3D printing is becoming indispensable for humanity’s expansion into the solar system.

The Military Dimension: Space Security Through 3D Printing

3D printers are also very essential for space security. According to US DOD, their space assets have come at risk, due to activities of adversaries that can degrade, deny or disrupt their ability to operate in space. US DOD is advancing many programs of space security like On-orbit robotic assembly of satellites, using additive manufacturing.

NATO’s historic decision to extend Article 5 protections to space assets has accelerated defense applications of orbital manufacturing technologies. Several key advancements are reshaping space security paradigms. On-orbit satellite repair systems employing advanced 3D printing could extend the operational life of critical assets while reducing vulnerability to anti-satellite threats. The concept of cellularized satellite designs allows for rapid orbital assembly of replacement components, ensuring continuity of operations even in contested environments.

Perhaps most significantly, 3D printing enables more stealthy spacecraft designs through embedded functionality that reduces external wiring and surface features. The U.S. Space Force has already demonstrated the tactical advantages of this approach, successfully 3D printing radio frequency components in orbit for secure communications systems. Not to be outdone, Russia’s 3D-printed Tomsk-TPU-120 satellite is testing novel material formulations for radiation-hardened applications, highlighting the global nature of this technological competition.

Global Competition Heats Up

The 3D printing space race has become a multi-polar competition involving all major spacefaring nations. The United States maintains a strong position through companies like Made In Space (now Redwire), which operates multiple printers aboard the ISS and leads the ambitious Archinaut project. China has emerged as a serious contender, with CASC’s carbon-fiber printer producing components 20% larger than American counterparts – a significant advantage for certain applications.

The competition to develop advanced 3D printing capabilities for space applications has intensified dramatically, with nations and private companies vying for leadership in this critical technological frontier. Aerospace giants like Airbus and Boeing have made significant strides, with Airbus producing 500 radio frequency components for its Eurostar Neo satellites using additive manufacturing (AM) and Boeing pioneering 3D-printed spacecraft antennas. The ArianeGroup’s breakthrough in reducing rocket injector components from 248 parts to just one through 3D printing demonstrates the technology’s transformative potential for launch systems. Meanwhile, startups like Relativity Space are pushing boundaries with fully 3D-printed rockets like Terran R, showcasing how AM can enable faster, more cost-effective space access.

Europe continues to innovate through ESA’s compact POP3D printer and pioneering work with PEEK thermoplastics for satellite construction. Russia’s Skolkovo innovation center is developing carbon-fiber composite printers for durable microsatellites, while India’s ISRO has expanded from printing simple antennas to complete propulsion systems. The commercial sector adds another dimension to this competition, with Airbus now routinely using 3D printing for over 500 components on its Eurostar Neo satellites, and Relativity Space’s fully printed Terran R rocket promising unprecedented reusability and rapid turnaround times.

The International Space Station (ISS) has become a proving ground for space-based 3D printing technologies. Following NASA and Made In Space’s pioneering ZeroG printer in 2014, multiple nations have deployed their systems to the orbiting lab. Europe’s compact POP3D printer emphasizes minimal power and crew requirements, while China has developed larger-format printers capable of handling advanced composites. Russia’s Tomsk-TPU-120 satellite mission tested novel 3D-printed materials in actual space conditions, and India continues to expand its capabilities beyond initial antenna printing to more complex propulsion components. These developments collectively demonstrate a shift from Earth-based manufacturing to in-space production, with profound implications for future space infrastructure.

1. Redwire Space (formerly Made In Space)

Redwire Space has been a pioneer in orbital additive manufacturing. They made history in 2014 by operating the first 3D printer aboard the International Space Station (ISS). This milestone demonstrated that the principles of 3D printing could be successfully applied in microgravity. Since then, the company has continued to innovate with their Archinaut One project—a robotic manufacturing and assembly platform designed to construct large-scale structures directly in space.

Archinaut One aims to manufacture satellite antennae and support booms on orbit, which would enable the creation of much larger and more capable systems than those constrained by traditional launch vehicle dimensions. This project represents a major step toward scalable, flexible space infrastructure that can be assembled in situ rather than being launched as a complete package.

2. NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA)

NASA is making significant investments in in-space servicing, assembly, and manufacturing (ISAM). Their goal is to build spacecraft and infrastructure that can adapt to unforeseen mission requirements and extend the lifespan of existing assets. NASA envisions a future where space missions can repair themselves or even evolve by printing and assembling new parts in orbit.

Meanwhile, the European Space Agency (ESA) is also investing in 3D printing, particularly in the development of satellite thrusters and structural components. ESA is experimenting with printing parts using lunar regolith simulants, laying the groundwork for sustainable infrastructure on the Moon. The implications are enormous: if habitats, tools, and satellite systems can be manufactured on-site using local resources, it will dramatically reduce the cost and complexity of interplanetary missions.

3. SpaceX and Defense Contractors

Though less public in their announcements, defense contractors and commercial launch giants like SpaceX are exploring orbital manufacturing for both commercial and strategic purposes. The ability to manufacture components or even entire satellites in space removes dependencies on fixed launch schedules and terrestrial facilities, making space assets more resilient to attack or interference.

This technology has far-reaching implications for national security. Space forces could rapidly assemble surveillance, communication, or reconnaissance satellites on demand in response to emergencies or conflicts. The flexibility and discretion offered by on-orbit manufacturing provide a decisive advantage in modern geopolitical environments.

Implications for Deep Space Missions

The long-term vision for space-based 3D printing extends well beyond Earth orbit. In near future, Space tourism will become a reality, the first woman will reach the Moon, a permanent lunar base will be built, exploration of our solar system will boom, the first human mission will get to Mars, and commercial manufacturing in space will begin.

For missions to Mars or deep space, the ability to build tools, spare parts, or entire habitats using onboard printers and locally sourced materials could be the difference between success and failure. Instead of waiting months or years for a replacement part to be launched from Earth, astronauts could print it in hours.

NASA is also exploring more exotic materials for additive manufacturing, such as lunar and Martian regolith. Regolith—essentially sharp, unweathered dust formed from eons of asteroid impacts—poses significant engineering challenges. Its abrasive nature can clog systems and damage equipment, yet it offers a tantalizing vision of sustainable, off-world construction. “We’ve proven it’s a viable option,” NASA researchers stated, suggesting a future where habitat walls, tools, or even entire spacecraft components could be printed from local resources. “We are breaking new ground not only in the way we manufacture in space but also in the way we operate and approve space hardware that is built in space, rather than launched from Earth,” said NASA’s 3D printer program manager Niki Werkheiser—highlighting the revolutionary shift this technology represents for humanity’s future beyond Earth.

DARPA’s investment in Virginia Tech’s Additive Friction Stir Deposition (AFSD) technology focuses on autonomous metal printing for lunar and Martian environments, combining AI with advanced materials science. These initiatives collectively address the fundamental challenge of launching bulky structures by instead sending compact raw materials for orbital fabrication.

In addition to supporting crewed missions, 3D printing in space could enable the construction of massive space telescopes, solar power arrays, or research stations that would be impossible to launch in a single piece. This approach aligns with long-term goals to establish permanent human presence on the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

The utility of space 3D printers can be enhanced when combined with synthetic biology. Researchers from the Universities Space Research Association (USRA), MIT Lincoln Laboratory, and NASA outline ways that synthetic biology and 3-D printing can support life during deep-space human missions. Astronauts can pack  Earth’s unique renewable resource: cells. Cells of fungi and bacteria, for example, can be reprogrammed with synthetic DNA to produce specific materials, like bioplastics. These materials can then be fed into 3-D printers to manufacture things the astronauts may need during spaceflight — everything from hardware and medical devices to medicine and food.

The Road Ahead: Printed Space Habitats and Beyond

As we look toward establishing permanent lunar bases and mounting crewed missions to Mars in the 2030s, 3D printing is evolving from a supporting technology to the foundational infrastructure of our spacefaring civilization. Bioprinting systems like Allevi’s ZeroG extruder could revolutionize medical care in space by enabling on-demand tissue fabrication. NASA-funded research into 3D-printed nutrition points toward sustainable food production solutions for long-duration missions.

ESA’s regolith printing demonstrations lay the groundwork for large-scale construction using local materials, while NASA’s recycling initiatives aim to create closed-loop material systems. The coming decade will see these technologies mature from laboratory prototypes to operational systems, determining not just which nation reaches these milestones first, but which can establish the most sustainable and resilient presence beyond Earth. In this new space race, victory may belong to those who can manufacture the future, quite literally, one layer at a time.