Global Space Domain Awareness: A Critical Capability Amid Rising Space Warfare Threats

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Space Domain Awareness: Shielding Earth’s Orbit from Warfare and Debris

As the race for orbital dominance accelerates, SDA is becoming the frontline defense against rising threats in space.

Introduction

As nations and private entities expand their presence in space, the need for Space Domain Awareness (SDA) has become more urgent than ever. The growing number of satellites, the proliferation of space debris, and the rise of counter-space threats have turned Earth’s orbit into a contested domain. SDA is now at the forefront of defense and security strategies, with major space-faring nations developing sophisticated capabilities to monitor, track, and mitigate potential threats.

This article delves into the evolving nature of Global SDA, its role in Space Situational Awareness (SSA), and its increasing significance as space warfare threats become more prominent.

Escalating Space Congestion and the Growing Threat of Orbital Debris

The exponential rise in satellite launches has significantly increased orbital congestion and collision risks. In 2019 alone, 385 small satellites were deployed, pushing the total number to nearly 2,900 by mid-2020, and this figure continues to rise sharply. Given the thousands of applications submitted by satellite operators for regulatory approval, estimates suggest that over 100,000 new spacecraft could be launched by 2030. Even if only 10% of these planned launches materialize, an additional 10,000 operational satellites would be added to the existing traffic, escalating the risk of satellite collisions, interference, and space debris proliferation. Without effective mitigation measures, these developments could compromise safe space operations, increase the likelihood of cascading debris-generating events such as the Kessler Syndrome, and severely disrupt critical communication, navigation, and Earth observation services.

Beyond increasing operational risks, space junk presents a formidable challenge for space sustainability. A surge in defunct satellites and debris fragments—resulting from failed launches, decommissioned satellites, and in-orbit collisions—jeopardizes the safe navigation of both crewed and uncrewed spacecraft. NASA estimates that over 21,000 objects larger than 10 cm, 500,000 between 1 and 10 cm, and more than 100 million smaller than 1 cm currently orbit the Earth. Even a 1 cm debris fragment traveling at 11 km/sec can disable a satellite, while an impact with a 10 cm object could cause catastrophic fragmentation, producing thousands of additional debris pieces. As space congestion intensifies, comprehensive space traffic management (STM) and active debris removal (ADR) initiatives are crucial to ensuring the long-term usability of Earth’s orbital environment.

Space Situational Awareness (SSA): A Pillar of Space Security

Space Situational Awareness (SSA) serves as the foundation of space security and sustainability, ensuring continuous tracking, assessment, and mitigation of natural and artificial space hazards. SSA encompasses three core domains: space surveillance and tracking (SST) for monitoring objects in orbit, space weather prediction to assess solar and geomagnetic activity, and near-Earth object (NEO) monitoring for tracking asteroids and other celestial threats. By leveraging ground-based radar networks, optical telescopes, and space-based sensors, SSA systems provide real-time intelligence on spacecraft positions, potential collision threats, and anomalies caused by environmental factors or hostile actions. This enables proactive collision avoidance, satellite maneuver planning, and the timely identification of adversarial activities in space.

One of SSA’s key functions is Conjunction Assessment (CA)—the identification of space objects at risk of colliding with operational satellites. By analyzing orbital trajectories and predictive models, SSA alerts satellite operators to potential threats, allowing for collision avoidance maneuvers based on risk assessments and cost-benefit analyses. Moreover, SSA plays a critical role in detecting and tracking hostile space activities, such as ASAT weapon tests, cyber intrusions, and unauthorized satellite maneuvers. As space becomes a strategic domain for national security, advanced SSA capabilities are crucial for safeguarding assets, deterring aggression, and maintaining operational superiority in orbit.

The Militarization of Space and SSA’s Expanding Role in Defense

Space, once regarded as a sanctuary for scientific exploration and peaceful cooperation, is now becoming a contested domain. The rapid militarization of space has led to the development and deployment of counter-space weapons designed to disable, disrupt, or destroy adversary space assets. This shift is driven by the increasing reliance on satellites for military communications, navigation, intelligence gathering, and missile defense. As a result, space has transformed into a potential battlefield where nations are actively testing and deploying offensive capabilities to gain a strategic advantage.

With the increasing militarization of space, SSA is now a critical component of national security and defense strategy. Several nations are developing counter-space capabilities, including killer microsatellites, ASAT weapons, and robotic servicing satellites capable of inspecting, disabling, or deorbiting adversary assets. The U.S., China, and Russia have already demonstrated ASAT capabilities, raising concerns about the weaponization of space and the absence of binding international regulations governing space warfare. To address this, legal frameworks such as the Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space (MILAMOS) aim to establish rules of engagement, war crime definitions, and responsibilities for military-induced space debris cleanup. However, global enforcement remains a challenge, as space powers continue to expand their military presence in orbit.

The modern battlefield is no longer confined to land, sea, and air—space has become a critical domain for national security and military operations. With increasing geopolitical tensions and growing reliance on satellite-based infrastructure for communications, navigation, intelligence, and missile defense, space warfare is no longer a hypothetical scenario but an emerging reality. Nations and private entities are rapidly developing counter-space capabilities, including anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons, cyber intrusions, and electronic warfare tactics, which threaten the security of space assets.

Counter-space weapons fall into several categories, each posing unique challenges to space security and global stability:

Kinetic Threats: The most destructive form of counter-space weapons, kinetic anti-satellite (ASAT) missiles are designed to directly impact and destroy a target satellite. Once deployed, these weapons create large amounts of space debris, significantly increasing the risk of collisions with other operational satellites. Countries like the U.S., China, Russia, and India have demonstrated kinetic ASAT capabilities, raising concerns about the long-term sustainability of Earth’s orbital environment. The destruction of satellites through kinetic attacks can have cascading effects, disrupting global communications, financial transactions, and defense systems.
Electronic Warfare: Satellites rely on radio frequency (RF) signals for communication and operation, making them vulnerable to jamming and spoofing attacks. Jamming disrupts signals, preventing satellites from transmitting or receiving data, while spoofing manipulates signals to deceive systems into misinterpreting information. These tactics can be used to interfere with military communications, GPS navigation, and missile warning systems.
Cyber and Electronic Warfare: The increasing digitization of space assets has exposed them to cyber threats, where adversaries can hack into satellite command and control systems. Cyberattacks can disrupt operations, steal classified data, or even take control of a satellite. Given the covert nature of cyber warfare, such attacks are difficult to detect and attribute, making them a growing concern for space security. Electronic jamming and spoofing attacks can interfere with GPS signals, communications, and surveillance capabilities, impacting both military and civilian operations. As these threats grow more sophisticated, SSA must integrate cyber situational awareness alongside traditional space tracking.
Co-Orbital Threats: Some nations have deployed co-orbital satellites capable of maneuvering close to other satellites to inspect, disable, or physically damage them. These satellites, often disguised as maintenance or inspection vehicles, pose a significant risk to critical space infrastructure. Co-orbital threats can be used to disable military or strategic satellites without creating noticeable debris, making them a highly sophisticated and stealthy form of space warfare.
Rendezvous and Proximity Operations (RPOs): Some satellites conduct suspicious close-proximity maneuvers near others, often under the guise of inspection or servicing missions. However, these satellites can be co-orbital ASAT weapons capable of disabling or hijacking their targets. In May 2024, the Pentagon confirmed that Russia deployed a suspected counter-space weapon, maneuvering dangerously close to a U.S. government satellite. Such incidents highlight the urgency for real-time monitoring and threat detection.

The weaponization of space is no longer a theoretical scenario but a pressing reality. As geopolitical tensions rise, the race to develop advanced counter-space capabilities continues, underscoring the urgent need for robust Space Domain Awareness (SDA) and international space security policies to prevent conflicts and ensure the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

Understanding Space Domain Awareness (SDA)

To counter these risks, Space Situational Awareness (SSA) has become a fundamental capability. It enables nations to monitor, track, and predict the movement of satellites and potential threats in orbit. As space congestion increases with thousands of new satellites and debris, SSA is now more critical than ever for protecting national interests and ensuring the continued stability of space operations.

SDA is the ability to detect, track, catalog, and predict the movement of objects in Earth’s orbit, ensuring that space operations remain secure. It includes identifying potential threats posed by adversarial satellites, space debris, or natural celestial objects. SDA is a crucial component of space security, military defense, and commercial satellite operations, enabling strategic decision-making and operational safety.

Key Elements of Space Domain Awareness (SDA)

Space Domain Awareness (SDA) is essential for maintaining the security and stability of space operations, particularly in an era of increasing space warfare threats. SDA provides real-time intelligence on space activities, enabling nations to protect their critical assets and respond to potential threats.

The U.S. Space Force, NATO, and allied space commands are actively enhancing SSA-based threat detection to counter emerging risks. The U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) defines SSA as “the requisite current and predictive knowledge of space events, threats, activities, conditions, and system capabilities necessary to maintain space superiority.” This extends beyond traditional tracking and surveillance to include Signal Intelligence (SIGINT), Communication Intelligence (COMINT), and Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)—enabling real-time monitoring of adversary space operations, unauthorized satellite launches, in-orbit maneuvers, and potential hostile actions. Advanced SSA capabilities, coupled with enhanced attribution techniques and AI-driven predictive models, serve as a powerful deterrent against space-based threats while ensuring strategic stability and crisis response readiness in an increasingly contested space environment.

It encompasses several key elements:

Object Detection & Tracking

One of the core functions of SDA is the continuous surveillance of satellites, space debris, and celestial bodies. This involves using ground-based and space-based radar, telescopes, and sensors to track the position, trajectory, and behavior of objects in orbit. Advanced tracking systems allow analysts to differentiate between operational satellites, inactive space junk, and potentially hazardous objects, ensuring accurate monitoring of the space environment.

Threat Assessment

Beyond merely tracking objects, SDA plays a crucial role in identifying and assessing potential threats. This includes monitoring hostile satellites—particularly those capable of rendezvous and proximity operations (RPO), which could be used to disable or interfere with other satellites. Additionally, SDA systems are equipped to detect missile launches and ASAT weapon tests, providing early warnings that help nations prepare countermeasures against space-based attacks.

Collision Avoidance & Debris Mitigation

The growing amount of space debris poses a serious risk to operational satellites and space missions. SDA enables the prediction of close approaches between objects, issuing collision warnings to satellite operators so they can perform evasive maneuvers when necessary. In addition, SDA monitors space weather phenomena, such as solar flares and geomagnetic storms, which can disrupt satellite functionality and impact communications, navigation, and other critical services.

Command and Control

Effective SDA requires coordination between military, government, and commercial space operators to ensure a unified response to emerging threats. A well-structured command and control system allows for efficient information sharing, threat analysis, and response planning. By maintaining safe operational protocols, SDA ensures the continued functionality of commercial, military, and scientific space assets, reducing the risk of conflicts and unintentional escalations.

As space becomes more militarized, the ability to detect, assess, and respond to potential threats is critical. Strengthening SDA capabilities will be essential for securing national space assets, preventing conflicts, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of outer space activities.

Advancements in Space Situational Awareness (SSA) Capabilities

As the space environment becomes more congested and contested, Space Situational Awareness (SSA) is evolving with cutting-edge technologies that enhance detection, tracking, and threat mitigation. Modern Space Domain Awareness (SDA) systems integrate both ground-based and space-based sensors, along with artificial intelligence (AI) and automation, to provide a comprehensive real-time picture of space activities.

Ground-Based Sensors: Enhancing Precision from Earth

Ground-based radar and optical telescopes remain fundamental to tracking objects in orbit, offering precise measurements of satellite positions, trajectories, and potential threats.

Large Radars: Advanced radar systems, such as the U.S. Space Fence, are capable of detecting and tracking objects as small as 10 cm in diameter, significantly improving the ability to monitor space debris and potential threats.
Optical Telescopes: High-resolution telescopes provide detailed imagery of satellites and unidentified space objects, supporting intelligence and reconnaissance efforts.
Radio Frequency (RF) Monitoring: Passive RF sensors track signal emissions from satellites, helping detect electronic warfare activities such as jamming or spoofing of communication signals.

Space-Based Sensors: Persistent Monitoring from Orbit

To complement ground-based assets, nations and commercial entities are deploying space-based sensors that provide persistent and global coverage of space activities.

Geostationary SDA Satellites: Positioned in geostationary orbit (GEO), these satellites continuously monitor high-altitude orbits, detecting new satellite deployments, maneuvers, and potential threats such as co-orbital attacks.
LEO Satellite Constellations: Small satellite constellations in low Earth orbit (LEO) enhance real-time detection of space activities, improving tracking accuracy and response times.
Hyperspectral and Infrared Sensors: Advanced imaging technologies allow space-based SDA systems to detect non-visible threats, including stealth satellites or heat signatures from anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons.

Artificial Intelligence and Automation in SDA

The growing volume of space traffic—including commercial satellites, debris, and military assets—necessitates AI-driven automation to improve efficiency and accuracy in SDA operations.

AI-Powered Predictive Analytics: Machine learning algorithms enhance tracking accuracy, predicting the future positions of satellites and space debris with high precision.
Automated Decision-Making: AI assists operators in real-time threat assessment, allowing for quicker responses to hostile satellite maneuvers or impending collisions.
Deep Learning for Anomaly Detection: Advanced deep learning models analyze satellite movement patterns to detect unusual behavior, such as rendezvous and proximity operations (RPOs) conducted by potentially hostile spacecraft.

The integration of ground-based and space-based SDA systems, coupled with advancements in AI and automation, is revolutionizing space situational awareness. These technologies provide military and civilian space operators with unparalleled monitoring capabilities, ensuring the protection of critical space assets. As threats in orbit continue to evolve, investment in next-generation SDA infrastructure will be essential to maintaining space security and stability.

Recent Trends in Space Domain Awareness (SDA)

The U.S. Air Force Space Command has redefined Space Situational Awareness (SSA) as Space Domain Awareness (SDA) to reflect the growing militarization of space. This shift acknowledges that space is no longer a benign operating environment but a potential warfighting domain that requires a more proactive and comprehensive approach. SDA emphasizes the identification, characterization, and understanding of all factors—passive or active—that could impact space operations, security, economy, or the environment. Unlike traditional SSA, which primarily focused on tracking space debris and monitoring satellite positions, SDA incorporates intelligence, predictive modeling, and real-time threat analysis to enhance space battle management. According to Maj. Gen. John Shaw, SDA must integrate legacy SSA-based metric observations, intelligence data, and environmental monitoring to enable the execution of military plans and operations in space—similar to how the Navy ensures maritime domain awareness and the Air Force achieves air superiority.

A major driver of SDA expansion is the increasing competition in cislunar space, the vast region between Earth and the Moon. With moon exploration, asteroid mining, and lunar resource extraction becoming strategic priorities, cislunar space is now considered the next “high ground” in geopolitical and military competition. The cislunar domain includes various Earth-centered orbits (LEO, GEO, HEO), Lagrange points (E-ML1 to E-ML5), and low lunar orbit (LLO). As space competition intensifies, militaries worldwide are extending their SSA capabilities beyond geosynchronous orbit (GEO) to monitor and secure this new frontier. Dean Cheng, a senior research fellow at the Heritage Foundation, emphasized that visibility into cislunar space will become a critical strategic concern due to its unique gravitational properties that allow satellites to remain in stable positions with minimal fuel. The U.S. military, along with other space-faring nations, is working on new surveillance architectures and detection systems to ensure dominance in this emerging theater of operations.

Another key development in SDA expansion is its integration with hypersonic missile defense systems. Traditional missile warning satellites in geosynchronous orbit struggle to detect hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs), which appear 10 to 20 times dimmer than conventional ballistic missiles when viewed from space. These weapons are also highly maneuverable, allowing them to evade ground-based and existing space-based sensors. Recognizing this vulnerability, the U.S. is developing a new constellation of space-based infrared sensors and tracking satellites to improve hypersonic threat detection. By integrating SDA with hypersonic missile defense, the U.S. aims to enhance early warning capabilities, improve real-time tracking, and counter emerging space-based threats more effectively. This convergence of space surveillance, missile defense, and military space operations signifies a broader shift toward space as a contested warfighting domain, where situational awareness is essential for strategic dominance.

Global SDA Capabilities

Space Situational Awareness (SSA) has become a critical priority for nations worldwide, driven by the need to safeguard space assets and ensure national security. Many SSA programs are closely tied to defense agencies, often integrated with space weather monitoring and Near-Earth Object (NEO) tracking. These programs primarily rely on networks of radar and optical sensors to detect, track, and analyze objects in orbit. However, the military oversight of SSA in many countries limits the transparency and public availability of tracking data. In the United States, for instance, the 18th Space Control Squadron, a division of the U.S. Space Force, manages SSA operations, providing collision warnings and monitoring potential threats in space. Similarly, Russia’s 821st Main Centre for Reconnaissance of Situation in Space operates under the Russian Space Forces, overseeing the country’s space surveillance network with a focus on military objectives.

Several nations and alliances have developed independent SSA capabilities, some of which are partially accessible to the public. France operates the GRAVES radar, primarily designed for tracking low-Earth orbit (LEO) objects, while Germany’s GESTRA system, managed under GSSAC, provides additional surveillance coverage. The European Union has taken a cooperative approach, with eight member states—France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and the UK—participating in the European Union Space Surveillance and Tracking (EUSST) initiative. This joint effort strengthens Europe’s ability to monitor space debris and potential threats, although detailed data and orbital elements remain classified. As space becomes increasingly congested and contested, global SSA programs will continue to evolve, incorporating new technologies such as AI-driven analytics and space-based sensors to enhance situational awareness and threat detection.

United States

The United States operates the most extensive Space Situational Awareness (SSA) network, utilizing a sophisticated mix of ground-based and space-based sensors to track, analyze, and mitigate potential threats in space. With space becoming increasingly congested and contested, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) continues to enhance its SSA capabilities to monitor and protect critical national security and commercial assets. The U.S. Space Surveillance Network (SSN) remains the primary system for detecting, tracking, and identifying objects in orbit. The system relies on over 30 globally positioned ground-based radars and optical telescopes, along with two dedicated space-based sensors. Currently, the SSN maintains the most comprehensive database, tracking more than 23,000 space objects larger than 10 cm, making it the most advanced SSA infrastructure globally. However, as adversarial threats and debris risks grow, efforts are underway to modernize and expand these capabilities.

The SPACETRACK program represents the latest evolution of the U.S. SSA efforts, integrating dedicated, collateral, electro-optical, passive radio frequency (RF), and radar sensors. This network provides real-time space object monitoring and supports command and control, targeting, and damage assessment for potential future anti-satellite (ASAT) systems. The SSN’s phased-array radars, originally developed for missile early warning, play a critical role in SSA by offering rapid detection and tracking of satellites and debris. Additionally, the Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance System (GEODSS), comprising three sites in New Mexico, Hawaii, and Diego Garcia, enhances deep-space object monitoring. These telescopes, along with a mobile unit in Spain, provide global coverage of geostationary orbits (GEO). However, the network’s reliance on weather-dependent optical systems and limited presence in the Southern Hemisphere leaves gaps in tracking capabilities, particularly over Africa, Asia, and South America.

Recognizing these limitations, the Space Fence program was launched to upgrade legacy VHF-based radar systems to a more advanced S-band radar capable of tracking microsatellites and debris at altitudes of up to 1,900 km. Built by Lockheed Martin, Space Fence became operational in 2020 at the Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. This system significantly enhances SSA capabilities, detecting, tracking, and cataloging space objects in LEO, MEO, and even GEO. The new radar system boasts a maximum coverage area of 40,000 km—nearly double that of its predecessor—and can track up to 200,000 orbital objects, making 1.5 million observations daily. Upgrades in 2021 further improved positional accuracy, particularly for objects in geostationary orbit. Space Force officials have stated that Space Fence is performing beyond expectations, providing a vital layer of monitoring for both military and civilian satellite operators.

Looking toward the future, the U.S. Space Force is spearheading the Deep-Space Advanced Radar Concept (DARC), designed to further expand SSA capabilities. DARC is a ground-based radar system that will operate 24/7 to detect, track, and maintain custody of deep-space objects, particularly in GEO. The system will consist of three strategically positioned radar sites worldwide to ensure global coverage, with planned locations in the continental U.S., Europe, and the Indo-Pacific region. While still in the planning stages, the program received $123 million in funding under the fiscal year 2022 budget, reflecting its strategic importance. The Space Force is currently negotiating with partner nations to determine the most suitable locations for these radar installations. If successful, DARC will provide an unprecedented level of real-time, deep-space object tracking, reinforcing the U.S.’s position as the global leader in space domain awareness.

The United States continues to enhance its Space Domain Awareness (SDA) capabilities through national initiatives and international collaborations. The U.S. Space Force has been proactive in deploying advanced sensors globally, including new SDA sensors hosted on allied satellites to improve regional monitoring and resilience. Additionally, the U.S. has partnered with the United Kingdom and Australia to develop a deep-space radar system aimed at improving the detection and tracking of objects beyond geostationary orbit. Despite these advancements, there is an ongoing need to evolve SDA capabilities to keep pace with emerging threats and the rapidly changing space environment.

As outer space becomes more contested, the U.S. remains at the forefront of SSA advancements, leveraging a combination of AI-driven analytics, automated tracking, and next-generation radars to stay ahead of emerging threats. The integration of cybersecurity measures into SSA systems will also be critical to protecting space infrastructure from electronic warfare and hacking attempts. With increasing investments in cutting-edge radar, sensor networks, and strategic partnerships, the U.S. aims to maintain superior space surveillance capabilities to ensure the security of its assets and strengthen global space governance.

Russian Military Space Surveillance Network (SKKP)

Russia operates the second-largest Space Situational Awareness (SSA) network globally, known as the Space Surveillance System (SSS) or SKKP (Система контроля космического пространства). It is managed by the Russian Space Forces under the Aerospace Forces and plays a crucial role in tracking and cataloging space objects. Originally developed as part of the Soviet-era missile early warning system, SKKP evolved into an independent network specializing in detecting, identifying, and tracking satellites while maintaining Russia’s catalog of space objects. It provides intelligence on foreign military satellites, supports space launches, and could potentially aid anti-satellite (ASAT) operations. Unlike its U.S. counterpart, SKKP does not publicly share space object data, limiting international transparency. However, it remains a critical asset for Russia’s military and strategic operations in space.

The SKKP system primarily relies on a network of phased array radars, missile early warning radars, and optical telescopes distributed across Russian territory and former Soviet republics. Some of these facilities operate under bilateral agreements with host countries. Russia is actively modernizing its SSA capabilities through the Automated Space Danger Warning System (ASPOS), which enhances space debris tracking and strengthens national security operations. Additionally, the Okno and Krona optical surveillance systems, located in Tajikistan and Russia, respectively, provide deep-space object detection, particularly in geostationary orbit (GEO). However, Russia’s SSA coverage in low-Earth orbit (LEO) remains less accurate due to the limited geographical distribution of its sensors.

Russia operates several high-power radars, including two bistatic phased array radars in Pechora (Russia) and Gabala (Azerbaijan), as well as an additional system in Belarus operating near 3 GHz. The Don-2N radar (“Pill Box”), a massive four-faced phased array system, serves both missile defense and space surveillance functions, forming part of the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system protecting Moscow. Older Dnepr and Daryal-class radars in Kazakhstan supplement these efforts, though they are gradually being replaced by newer-generation systems like the Voronezh radar series. Despite these advancements, Russian SSA capabilities remain less extensive than those of the U.S., particularly in terms of global coverage and data-sharing practices.

In addition to military-operated assets, the Russian Academy of Sciences manages the International Scientific Optical Network (ISON), a global collaboration of scientific institutions and observatories. ISON consists of 30+ telescopes spread across 20 observatories in 10 countries, including sites in Europe, Asia, South America, and off the coast of Africa. This network enables Russia to track a broad range of deep-space objects, complementing military SSA operations. However, the lack of data integration between military and civilian tracking efforts limits the overall effectiveness of Russian space surveillance. As space becomes more contested, Russia is likely to further enhance its SKKP capabilities, integrating advanced radar, optical systems, and AI-driven tracking to bolster its strategic position in space domain awareness.

People’s Republic of China (PRC) Space Surveillance Capabilities

China is making significant investments in Space Situational Awareness (SSA) to support both its civilian and military space programs. As the world leader in annual satellite launches, China faces a growing need to monitor and protect its expanding satellite fleet from space debris, potential collisions, and adversarial threats. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA), particularly its Strategic Support Force (SSF), plays a central role in developing and managing China’s SSA infrastructure. While China does not publicly disclose details of its SSA capabilities, available evidence suggests that it operates a network of ground-based radars, optical telescopes, and space-based sensors to track objects in orbit and strengthen its counterspace capabilities.

China’s ground-based radar network reportedly includes seven phased-array radar sites capable of tracking objects in low-Earth orbit (LEO), with an estimated 3,000 km range and 120-degree azimuth coverage. Additionally, China operates long-range precision mechanical tracking radars and four optical observatory locations under the Purple Mountain Observatory, which contribute to SSA but lack global coverage of the geostationary belt. To extend its reach, China deploys two Yuanwang tracking ships, which provide mobile telemetry, tracking, and command capabilities beyond its territorial waters. China’s SSA architecture is believed to be undergoing rapid modernization, with increasing integration of AI-driven tracking, advanced radar technology, and space-based SSA sensors to improve its orbital awareness and defense posture.

Beyond its domestic SSA infrastructure, China is expanding its global space presence through strategic partnerships and overseas tracking facilities. A notable example is the Patagonia Tracking Station in Argentina, which was established in 2015 under the guise of supporting deep-space exploration. However, Western analysts and intelligence reports suggest that this facility, which is controlled by the PLA’s Satellite Control Center, could serve dual-use purposes, including intelligence collection on Western space assets, missile launches, and electronic warfare operations. The lack of transparency and oversight surrounding this station has raised concerns that it could be used for counterspace operations, jamming, or cyber intrusions targeting Western satellite networks.

China is rapidly expanding its SDA and overall space capabilities, aiming to deploy a large constellation of low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites. This expansion strengthens China’s ability to monitor space activities while also enhancing its satellite-based internet coverage and communications infrastructure. However, the rapid scale-up of its space programs has raised concerns regarding competition and security implications for global space operations.

China’s SSA efforts are closely tied to its broader geopolitical and military ambitions, including its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which integrates space-based services into its global economic and strategic outreach. The PLA Strategic Support Force (SSF) is responsible for maintaining continuous communication with over 200 satellites, providing reconnaissance, early-warning, and navigation support through the Beidou Global Navigation Satellite System. As China moves toward a fully modernized military by 2035, it is expected to further enhance its SSA capabilities, potentially integrating quantum communications, AI-driven analytics, and directed-energy technologies to maintain dominance in the increasingly contested space domain.

Europe’s Space Situational Awareness (SSA) Capabilities

The European Space Situational Awareness (SSA) programme, initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) in 2009, aims to enhance Europe’s ability to access and utilize space safely by monitoring space weather, detecting Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), and tracking satellites and space debris. The SSA programme is structured into three main segments: Space Weather (SWE), Near-Earth Object (NEO) detection, and Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST). While ESA leads SSA efforts at the European level, individual European nations operate their own space tracking systems, often in collaboration with the United States and NATO allies. Europe’s SSA infrastructure is evolving with new radar, optical, and data processing capabilities, enabling better monitoring of space traffic and enhancing space security efforts.

Europe has several advanced SSA radar systems. France operates the GRAVES radar, a bistatic continuous-wave space surveillance system designed to track satellites under 1,000 km altitude and maintain an updated satellite database. Germany operates TIRA (Tracking and Imaging Radar), a monostatic mechanical tracking system capable of detecting objects as small as 2 cm at 1,000 km altitude. Additionally, Germany’s Fraunhofer Institute is developing GESTRA (German Experimental Space Surveillance and Tracking Radar), a phased-array system at 1.3 GHz, capable of tracking multiple objects simultaneously with high precision and rapid reorientation. Norway, in cooperation with the U.S., operates GLOBUS II, a deep-space mechanical tracking radar designed to track and image objects in geostationary orbit (GEO). Furthermore, the European Incoherent Scatter (EISCAT) radar system, based in Norway, conducts space debris research to improve orbital object tracking.

Europe also maintains optical observation capabilities for SSA. France operates SPOC, ROSACE, and TAROT optical facilities, while the UK runs PIMS, and Switzerland manages the Zimlat observatory. ESA has been expanding its space-based observation capabilities, with projects like the FlyEye automated telescope, which will provide full-sky NEO scanning. The EU Space Surveillance and Tracking (EU SST) consortium, established in 2014, has further strengthened SSA efforts by coordinating data-sharing and developing a European-wide network of sensors. ESA has also partnered with commercial providers to improve orbital monitoring and space traffic management.

The European SSA programme is implemented as an optional ESA initiative, with participation from 14 Member States and a multi-phase funding approach. The programme’s first phase led to the establishment of key SSA facilities such as the Space Weather Coordination Centre in Belgium, the NEO Data Centre in Italy, and the SSA Tasking Centre in Germany. The second phase (2013–2016) received €46.5 million in funding, supporting the development of space surveillance radars and optical tracking systems. Europe’s SSA capabilities continue to expand, with increasing emphasis on autonomous surveillance, collision avoidance, and international collaboration, ensuring greater resilience against orbital threats and supporting Europe’s growing space activities.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom is making significant investments in SDA infrastructure to bolster its space security posture. Plans have been approved for a deep-space radar system capable of tracking small objects in orbit, which will significantly enhance the UK’s ability to monitor and analyze space activities. The UK is also a key participant in multinational SDA initiatives, working closely with allied nations to ensure coordinated surveillance and threat detection in space.

Australia

Australia is actively collaborating with international partners to advance its SDA capabilities. As part of a broader defense partnership, Australia is contributing to the development of next-generation space radar systems designed to improve the tracking of objects in deep space. These efforts reflect Australia’s growing role in space security and situational awareness, ensuring greater coordination with allied nations in monitoring orbital threats.

Japan

Japan continues to enhance its SDA capabilities through strategic partnerships, particularly with the United States. New SDA sensors integrated into Japan’s satellite systems improve its ability to monitor space activities and detect potential threats. These initiatives reflect Japan’s commitment to building a more resilient space security infrastructure while strengthening cooperation with global allies.

India’s Space Situational Awareness (SSA) Initiatives

India’s Space Situational Awareness (SSA) efforts have evolved significantly as the country moves toward greater self-reliance in space monitoring and debris management. Historically, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) relied on North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) data for tracking space debris and monitoring satellites. However, as a non-member of NORAD, India had limited access to real-time tracking data, which affected the precision and timeliness of orbital object monitoring. To address this, ISRO established the Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM), a dedicated unit focused on protecting India’s space assets from potential collisions. A major milestone in this initiative is the development of the ISRO SSA Control Centre, known as NETRA (NEtwork for space object TRacking and Analysis), located at ISTRAC, Peenya, Bangalore. This facility enhances India’s ability to independently track and analyze space objects, reducing dependence on foreign data sources.

Under NETRA, India is developing a comprehensive SSA infrastructure, including a radar system, an optical telescope facility, and a centralized control centre for real-time space object tracking. The SSA control centre will also house dedicated research labs focused on space debris mitigation, compliance with UN/IADC guidelines, and predictive modeling of space threats. These labs will conduct advanced studies on space object fragmentation, micrometeoroid environment modeling, space weather phenomena, and planetary defense. The establishment of indigenous SSA capabilities aligns with India’s broader “Atmanirbhar Bharat” (Self-Reliant India) initiative, ensuring greater security and sustainability for its space assets. In December 2020, Dr. K. Sivan, then ISRO Chairman, formally inaugurated the ISRO SSA Control Centre, reaffirming its strategic importance in keeping pace with global SSA advancements.

Beyond civilian SSA efforts, India’s Defence Space Agency (DSA) is actively enhancing its counter-space capabilities. The DSA has been scouting technologies for space situational awareness solutions that can identify, track, and assess potential threats to Indian space assets. A Request for Information (RFI) was issued in early 2021 to procure a system capable of integrating surveillance data from multiple sources into a Common Operating Picture (COP), allowing better threat assessment across land, sea, air, and space domains. These initiatives align with India’s broader strategy to counter China’s growing space dominance and potential anti-satellite (ASAT) capabilities. In parallel, India and the United States have agreed to collaborate on SSA data sharing and space traffic management, ensuring the navigational safety of Indian satellites through access to advanced U.S. tracking systems. India’s ongoing investments in SSA technology and defense-oriented space surveillance mark a significant step toward strengthening its role as a key space power in the evolving global security landscape.

Global Outlook

Nations worldwide are actively advancing their SDA capabilities through technological innovations and strategic collaborations. These efforts are critical for maintaining space security, protecting vital space assets, and addressing the challenges posed by an increasingly contested and congested space environment. As space becomes a key domain for national security, continued investment in SDA technologies will be essential for ensuring long-term stability in orbit.

SDA in the Age of Space Diplomacy and Defense Policy

As space becomes increasingly crowded and contested, Space Domain Awareness (SDA) is no longer just a military priority but a critical element of global space governance and diplomacy. The shared nature of space necessitates international cooperation to ensure the sustainability and security of space activities. Leading organizations such as NORAD, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) are actively working to enhance global space security and coordination. The U.S. and its allies, including Five Eyes nations (U.S., U.K., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand) and NATO, have established agreements for sharing space tracking data, enabling collective monitoring of space assets and threats. Additionally, bilateral partnerships, such as those between the U.S. and India, are strengthening space situational awareness (SSA) capabilities to counter emerging threats and improve space traffic management (STM).

Beyond governmental cooperation, public-private partnerships are playing an increasing role in SDA. Commercial satellite operators such as SpaceX, OneWeb, and Amazon’s Project Kuiper are contributing valuable data to global SDA efforts through their large-scale satellite constellations. These companies provide real-time tracking and early warning capabilities, which are essential for preventing satellite collisions and mitigating space debris risks. Additionally, private-sector advancements in AI-driven SDA systems are revolutionizing how space threats are detected and managed. However, these collaborations raise concerns about data security, dual-use technologies, and proprietary access to space traffic information, necessitating clearer regulatory frameworks to balance commercial interests with national security.

Challenges in Space Governance

Despite growing collaboration, significant governance challenges remain in ensuring a stable and secure space environment. The Outer Space Treaty (1967)—the cornerstone of international space law—does not address modern space warfare scenarios, leaving gaps in regulations related to anti-satellite (ASAT) tests, military space operations, and cybersecurity threats. The lack of legally binding treaties on space militarization allows nations to develop counter-space capabilities without clear restrictions, increasing the risks of conflicts and unintended escalations. Additionally, the issue of attribution in space-based attacks—such as cyber intrusions, electronic warfare, or kinetic ASAT strikes—remains unresolved, making it difficult to hold aggressors accountable or enforce deterrence measures.

Another critical concern is Space Traffic Management (STM), which requires global coordination to prevent satellite collisions and mitigate space debris threats. With over 100,000 satellites expected to be in orbit by 2030, the need for standardized space traffic rules is more urgent than ever. Current efforts, such as the U.S. Space Force’s plans for a unified SDA framework and the European Union’s push for an international STM system, signal progress, but the lack of a centralized global authority on space traffic continues to pose challenges. As more nations and private entities enter the space arena, developing a cohesive and enforceable space governance framework will be crucial to ensuring long-term space security and sustainability in the age of diplomatic cooperation and strategic competition.

The Future of Global SDA and Space Security

As space becomes an increasingly contested domain, the future of Space Domain Awareness (SDA) will be shaped by technological advancements and global collaboration. With adversaries developing more sophisticated counter-space capabilities, enhancing SDA is critical for ensuring the security of space assets. The next generation of SDA systems will focus on improving detection accuracy, response times, and resilience against evolving threats.

Quantum-Based SDA

One of the most promising advancements in SDA is the integration of quantum technologies. Quantum sensors have the potential to revolutionize space surveillance by offering real-time, ultra-precise tracking of satellites and other objects in orbit. These sensors, based on quantum entanglement and superposition principles, could provide unparalleled sensitivity in detecting faint signals, making it possible to track stealth satellites or cloaked space assets that traditional radar and optical systems might miss. Additionally, quantum communication networks could offer secure, tamper-proof channels for transmitting critical SDA data, reducing the risk of cyber interference.

Space-Based SDA Constellations

To enhance real-time situational awareness, many nations are investing in space-based SDA sensor constellations. Deploying large networks of sensors in low Earth orbit (LEO) will provide continuous, global monitoring of space activity. Unlike ground-based radar and telescopes, which are limited by weather conditions and line-of-sight restrictions, space-based SDA systems offer persistent surveillance and improved tracking of fast-moving objects. These sensor networks will be crucial for detecting co-orbital threats, such as satellites capable of proximity operations or potential attack maneuvers.

Integration with Cybersecurity Measures

As SDA systems become increasingly digital and interconnected, they face growing risks from cyberattacks. Future SDA infrastructure must be designed with robust cybersecurity protocols to prevent hacking, data manipulation, and system disruptions. Potential threats include satellite command intrusions, GPS spoofing, and malware targeting critical SDA databases. By integrating artificial intelligence (AI)-driven threat detection and blockchain-based security protocols, SDA networks can safeguard against cyber vulnerabilities while ensuring the integrity of space intelligence.

International Cooperation: A Key to Future SDA Success

Given the global nature of space threats, international collaboration will be essential in advancing SDA capabilities. Countries will need to establish shared data-sharing agreements, standardized protocols, and joint response mechanisms to ensure space security. Multinational initiatives, such as the U.S.-led Combined Space Operations (CSpO) initiative and the European Union’s Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) program, are paving the way for cooperative SDA frameworks. Strengthening these partnerships will be vital in deterring hostile actions and ensuring long-term sustainability in space operations.

Conclusion

Space has become an operational domain for defense, commerce, and scientific exploration. As the risk of space warfare grows, Global Space Domain Awareness (SDA) is now an essential capability for national security and international stability. The future of SDA will be defined by cutting-edge technologies and increased global cooperation. Investing in advanced surveillance, AI-driven analytics, and collaborative governance will be critical to securing the space environment for future generations. By leveraging quantum advancements, expanding space-based sensor networks, and integrating cybersecurity measures, nations can strengthen their ability to detect, assess, and respond to threats in orbit. In an era of growing space warfare concerns, investing in next-generation SDA capabilities will be critical to maintaining the security and stability of space operations. The race for space superiority is well underway, and the ability to see, track, and defend assets in orbit will determine the strategic advantage in the next era of space operations.

References and Resources also include:

http://www.airforce-technology.com/news/newsuniversity-of-exeter-to-draft-new-rules-for-space-warfare-5822931

https://swfound.org/media/205874/swf_ssa_fact_sheet.pdf

https://libre.space/2020/03/02/space-situational-awareness/