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As the digital age progresses, cyberspace has emerged as the fifth domain of warfare, alongside land, sea, air, and space. Governments worldwide are investing heavily in cyber capabilities, but few nations have pursued this objective with the fervor and strategic intent of China. With its eyes firmly set on becoming a global cyber superpower, China is leveraging its technological prowess, political determination, and vast resources to dominate this new battlefield.
The Strategic Importance of Cyberspace
Cyberspace is no longer just a platform for communication and commerce; it is now a critical arena for national security. Modern militaries, governments, and economies are deeply interconnected through digital networks, making them vulnerable to cyberattacks. For China, dominating cyberspace is not just about defense but also about securing a strategic edge in global geopolitics. By developing offensive and defensive cyber capabilities, China aims to safeguard its national interests, project power, and reshape the international order.
China’s engagement with cyber warfare dates back to the 1990s, when the concept of “information warfare” emerged within its academic and military circles. Influenced by the U.S. military’s success in utilizing advanced technologies during the Gulf War and subsequent conflicts, China recognized the critical role of information technologies in modern warfare. This realization led to the formal adoption of the “Three Warfares” doctrine in 2003, which encompasses psychological, media, and legal warfare.
By 2004, China’s military shifted its focus from traditional warfare to “informationized” conflict, emphasizing the importance of information dominance. In 2013, the Chinese military further integrated cyber warfare into its strategy, acknowledging cyberspace as a crucial domain for military operations. By 2015, this approach was formally codified in China’s Military Strategy, which outlined cyber capabilities as essential for national security, focusing on cyber defense, situation awareness, and international cooperation to maintain social stability and prevent major cyber crises. This strategic framework underscores China’s growing emphasis on cyber as a vital tool in its national security apparatus.
China’s Cyber Ambitions: A Multifaceted Approach
China’s ambition to establish itself as a leading cyber power is evident in its multifaceted approach, encompassing military, economic, and diplomatic strategies. The country has made significant investments in cyber technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), quantum computing, and network infrastructure to fortify its cyber ecosystem. Key elements of China’s strategy include:
Military modernization is a central pillar of China’s cyber power ambitions. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has integrated cyber warfare into its military doctrine, viewing it as a critical element of modern conflict.
Recently, the PLA established an “information support force,” a strategic branch focused on coordinating the construction and application of network information systems. In April 2024, Chinese President Xi Jinping inaugurated the Information Support Force (ISF), a new strategic branch of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) designed to enhance China’s military capabilities in the modern era. The ISF is seen as an evolution of the PLA’s earlier Strategic Support Force (SSF), which was formed in 2015 to address space, cyber, and electronic warfare. By launching the ISF, Xi emphasized the force’s critical role in advancing the Chinese military’s information systems and integrating them into broader military operations. He also noted that the ISF will be instrumental in improving the PLA’s competitiveness in modern warfare, particularly in terms of information warfare and network operations.
Xi, who also heads the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Central Military Commission (CMC), stressed that the ISF must be deeply integrated into the PLA’s joint operations system, ensuring that it is capable of supporting military operations across multiple domains. The force is expected to build a robust network information system tailored to modern warfare and enhance the PLA’s combat capabilities. Xi also underscored the importance of the ISF’s absolute loyalty to the CPC and the need for its personnel to remain loyal, pure, and reliable in their duties. The establishment of the ISF marks a significant step in Xi’s ongoing military reforms, which have included downsizing the PLA and overhauling command structures since he took power in 2012.
Industrial espionage and intellectual property theft are key tactics China employs to accelerate its technological advancements and reduce reliance on foreign innovations. By leveraging cyber operations for espionage, China targets industries such as defense, telecommunications, and biotechnology, often seeking to obtain valuable intellectual property and technological secrets.
Through initiatives like the Digital Silk Road, China seeks to extend its global influence by exporting technological infrastructure, including 5G networks and surveillance systems, to developing countries. While this expands China’s geopolitical reach, it also raises concerns about the security of these systems, particularly the potential for backdoors that could be exploited for cyber espionage and other malicious activities.
China also advocates for “cyber sovereignty,” a concept that emphasizes state control over internet governance within national borders. By championing this model, China aims to legitimize its stringent internet controls and position itself as a leader in shaping global cybersecurity norms, ultimately influencing the future of global internet governance.
China in Global Cyber Landscape
A country’s cyber capability is determined by factors such as its technological research and development (R&D), the strength of its information technology sector, internet infrastructure, cyber military assets, and the coherence of its cyberspace strategy. These factors collectively reflect a nation’s ability to influence the global digital environment and safeguard its interests in an increasingly interconnected world.
The concept of cyber power, as outlined in the National Cyber Power Index (NCPI) 2020, developed by the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at the Harvard Kennedy School, offers a comprehensive framework for evaluating the cyber capabilities of nations. The index ranks countries based on both their intent and capability, utilizing a robust set of 32 intent indicators and 27 capability indicators. These are grouped into seven broad objectives, ranging from surveillance and defense to offensive capabilities, intelligence gathering, and commercial growth. The ranking system provides a clear picture of how nations are leveraging cyberspace to further their geopolitical, economic, and security goals.
In the NCPI rankings, the United States, the United Kingdom, and China occupy the top three spots, reflecting their dominant positions in the global cyber landscape. China, in particular, is emerging as a formidable contender to challenge the U.S. for technological supremacy, thanks to its aggressive investment in cyber capabilities and infrastructure.
India, by contrast, ranks 21st, falling into the “low-intent, low-capability” category. This ranking is concerning for a nation that faces regular cyberattacks and is heavily dependent on its technological and strategic resilience. The situation is further complicated by ongoing border tensions with China, which heighten India’s vulnerability to cyber threats and create strategic challenges for its planners.
Cyber Offense capability
China’s cyber offense capabilities have long been a subject of international concern, with one of the most prominent revelations coming from the 2013 Mandiant report, which exposed the operations of the Chinese cyber espionage group known as APT1. The report uncovered detailed evidence of cyberattacks conducted by PLA Unit 61398, based in Shanghai. This unit, identified as part of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) General Staff Department’s 3rd Department, is responsible for some of the most prolific cyber espionage campaigns targeting a wide range of industries globally. Mandiant’s investigation revealed that APT1 had stolen vast amounts of data, including billions of terabytes from 141 companies across 20 sectors, making it one of the most active and successful hacking groups in history. The scale of these operations highlighted China’s ability to leverage cyber capabilities for strategic economic and geopolitical gain.
APT1 is believed to have been conducting these operations since at least 2006, with an increasing sophistication in its methods. The group’s targets have included high-profile industries such as aerospace, energy, and telecommunications, demonstrating the strategic nature of its espionage. The physical location of Unit 61398, a 12-story facility in Pudong, Shanghai, became widely known through Mandiant’s report, providing the world with unprecedented insight into the scale and organization of China’s cyber offense. Staffed by hundreds, possibly thousands, of personnel, this unit is specialized in computer network operations (CNO), with a strong focus on network intrusion and data exfiltration. Personnel are required to undergo extensive training in cybersecurity, network operations, and proficiency in English, underscoring the unit’s sophistication and its alignment with China’s broader technological ambitions. This revelation, among many others, has significantly altered the global understanding of China’s cyber capabilities and its growing cyber warfare posture, posing both economic and security challenges to nations worldwide.
Cyber Defense capabilites
China’s efforts to bolster its cyber defense capabilities have become increasingly sophisticated and expansive in recent years. A major step in this direction was the creation of a national data repository, where telecommunications companies, internet providers, and government bodies are required to report cyber threats such as Trojan malware and vulnerabilities linked to malicious IP addresses. This initiative is part of a broader strategy to enhance national cybersecurity and protect against external cyber threats. The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) emphasized that this centralized approach is integral to China’s defense cyberspace efforts, which are now considered a critical component of military modernization. The country’s strategy aims to not only safeguard national cyberspace sovereignty but also establish a global influence in cybersecurity, ensuring China’s role as a major cyber power by 2035.
In addition to strengthening its national defense framework, China is also collaborating with Russia to enhance cyber defense capabilities, particularly in developing telecommunications equipment to counter external cyber attacks. This collaboration is seen as part of a broader military alliance, where both nations aim to protect their shared interests and maintain regional strategic balance. Domestically, China has introduced its first civil-military cybersecurity innovation center, with the ambitious goal of developing cutting-edge cyber defense systems. The center focuses on creating technologies for military-related internet services and fostering collaboration between small- and medium-sized companies to meet military cybersecurity needs. This initiative is complemented by advancements in AI-driven cybersecurity systems that aim to identify abnormal behavior and potential cyber threats based on big data and behavioral analysis. As the global cyber threat landscape continues to evolve, China’s expanding cyber defense capabilities reflect a commitment to securing its digital infrastructure and asserting its position as a leading cyber power.
In one of its most notable cybersecurity tests, China invited international white hat hackers to challenge its advanced defense system, Cyber Mimic Defense (CMD). During a competition held in Nanjing, China’s system withstood over 500,000 simulated attacks, proving its resilience and the effectiveness of its innovative defense strategies. Unlike traditional systems, which rely on blacklists and whitelists, CMD operates under the premise of mimicking cyber defense techniques, allowing it to continue functioning even in the event of vulnerabilities or backdoors being exploited. This innovative system is seen as a breakthrough in defense strategies, demonstrating China’s capacity to not only defend against cyber threats but also to innovate in the field of cybersecurity. The success of CMD against elite hacking teams from across the world underscores China’s growing capabilities in securing its digital and military infrastructure from increasingly sophisticated cyber attacks.
A Double-Edged Sword: The Global Implications of China’s Cyber Strategy
China’s rapid advancements in cyber capabilities present both opportunities and challenges for the global community. While its investments drive innovation and economic growth, they also raise significant concerns about security, privacy, and the potential for a fragmented internet.
Security concerns are at the forefront, as China’s alleged state-sponsored cyberattacks, including the infamous SolarWinds breach and other espionage campaigns targeting Western governments, highlight the risks posed by its growing cyber capabilities. These incidents underscore the urgent need for robust international collaboration to counteract the growing array of cyber threats and establish shared defensive measures.
Economic implications are also profound. China’s dominance in critical technologies, such as semiconductors and AI, could disrupt global supply chains and provide it with significant leverage in economic negotiations. Nations that are heavily reliant on Chinese technology face the risk of becoming vulnerable to coercion, particularly in strategic sectors like telecommunications and energy.
Geopolitical tensions are increasingly linked to China’s rise as a cyber power. The growing capabilities of China in cyberspace have heightened tensions with other major powers, particularly the United States. This has led to a modern-day arms race in cyberspace, with both nations heavily investing in cybersecurity defenses and offensive cyber capabilities, further amplifying the stakes in global cyber diplomacy.
The Path Forward: Building Resilience in a Digitally Connected World
As China continues its pursuit of cyber dominance, the international community must evolve to address emerging threats. In a world that is increasingly interconnected, building resilience in cyberspace is critical for securing both national and global stability. This requires a multi-faceted and coordinated approach.
Strengthening cyber defenses is essential. Governments and organizations must prioritize investments in advanced cybersecurity infrastructure, safeguarding critical national assets, protecting sensitive data, and fortifying the digital networks that power industries and economies worldwide.
Fostering international collaboration is equally important. To reduce the risks of cyber warfare and escalation, establishing clear global norms and agreements on cyberspace conduct is vital. By working together, nations can set boundaries, exchange best practices, and create frameworks that promote stability and mutual defense.
Promoting technological independence plays a key role in national security. Diversifying technology supply chains and reducing dependency on foreign (particularly Chinese) infrastructure is crucial. Building homegrown capabilities and ensuring that supply chains are resilient and secure can limit vulnerabilities and bolster sovereignty.
Encouraging public-private partnerships is necessary to combat the growing sophistication of cyber threats. By fostering closer collaboration between governments and the private sector, both parties can drive innovation in cybersecurity technologies, share threat intelligence, and respond more swiftly to emerging challenges.
Conclusion
Cyberspace is undoubtedly the new frontier of global competition, and China is positioning itself as a dominant player. While its advancements in cyber capabilities have propelled technological progress, they have also raised critical questions about security, privacy, and the balance of power in the digital age. The establishment of the PLA’s information support force further underscores China’s intent to modernize its military and achieve strategic information superiority. As nations grapple with the challenges and opportunities of this new battlefield, one thing is clear: the race for cyber supremacy is far from over.
References and Resources also include:
http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0515/c90000-9460358.html
http://en.people.cn/n3/2018/0428/c90000-9454980.html
http://tass.com/economy/973146
http://eng.chinamil.com.cn/view/2017-12/28/content_7887491.htm
