Cryogenic Electronics: Unlocking the Frozen Frontiers of Technology

Rajesh Uppal January 26, 2024 Electronics & EW Comments Off on Cryogenic Electronics: Unlocking the Frozen Frontiers of Technology 256 Views

Introduction

In the ever-evolving landscape of electronics and technology, one field that’s pushing the boundaries of what’s possible is cryogenic electronics or cryoelectronics. Cryogenic electronics, often referred to as cryoelectronics, is a fascinating field that explores the effects of extreme cold temperatures on electronic devices and components.

Some specialized applications, such as electronic systems on spacecraft or superconducting devices, need cryogenic temperatures to operate. There are several existing cryogenic electronics applications, including superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) for measuring extremely subtle magnetic fields, microwave preamplification, superconducting power cables, and setting measurement standards. Other important applications at cryogenic temperatures include quantum computing and quantum compasses.

In this article, we’ll delve into the intriguing realm of cryogenic electronics, exploring what it is, its applications, and the incredible potential it holds for various industries.

The Chilling World of Cryogenic Electronics

Cryogenic electronics is all about harnessing the power of extreme cold. It involves operating electronic devices and materials at temperatures below -150 degrees Celsius (-238 degrees Fahrenheit) to exploit the remarkable properties exhibited by materials in these icy conditions. At these frigid temperatures, materials exhibit unique properties that can significantly improve the efficiency and capabilities of electronic components.

Cryogenic electronics offer a host of additional benefits beyond their ability to operate at extremely low temperatures. One notable advantage is their reduced power consumption compared to conventional circuits. This feature translates into substantial energy savings, making cryogenic electronics an environmentally friendly choice while potentially extending the operational life of devices.

Utilizing power electronics designed for and operated at low temperatures promises more efficient systems compared to their room temperature counterparts, owing to the superior electronic, electrical, and thermal properties of materials at lower temperatures. Notably, certain semiconductor devices exhibit improved performance as temperatures decrease, extending down to the realm of liquid nitrogen temperature.

Moreover, cryogenic circuits boast increased reliability due to their reduced susceptibility to heat-related failures. Traditional electronic components are prone to overheating, which can lead to malfunctions and, in some cases, catastrophic failures. Cryogenic electronics, by contrast, exhibit greater resilience, making them an attractive option for applications where reliability is paramount, such as space exploration and deep-sea exploration.

Another advantage is the potential for cryogenic circuits to be smaller and lighter than their conventional counterparts. Power electronics devices are used in these applications to provide power to electric machinery or devices. Traditionally, power electronics devices are enclosed in thermal insulation and held at room temperature (300 K). Additional thermal insulation and temperature control requirements add complexity, volume, weight and expense. As such, it will be advantageous if power electronic systems can work at cryogenic temperatures as well. In scenarios where space and weight constraints are critical, such as in spacecraft design or portable medical equipment, the reduced size and weight of cryogenic electronics can be a game-changer, enabling more compact and efficient devices.

In summary, cryogenic electronics offer a trifecta of benefits: reduced power consumption, enhanced reliability, and a smaller footprint. These advantages make them a compelling choice for a wide range of applications, from cutting-edge scientific research to space missions and beyond.

Cryoelectronics has expanded the horizons of cryophysics and cryotechnics

The emergence of cryoelectronics has not only marked a significant technological advancement but has also given rise to a specialized branch within the fields of cryophysics and cryotechnics. This new branch focuses specifically on the study and application of electronics under cryogenic conditions, where temperatures approach absolute zero. Cryophysics and cryotechnics traditionally deal with the behavior of matter and technology at extremely low temperatures, and cryoelectronics has carved out its niche within these disciplines.

Within this specialized field, cryoelectronics plays a crucial role in operations that demand exceptionally high levels of precision and resolution in measurements. The extreme cold of cryogenic environments provides a unique advantage for achieving these exacting standards. Electronic components operating at such low temperatures exhibit reduced noise and enhanced sensitivity, making them ideal for tasks that require the utmost precision, like quantum computing, materials analysis, and subatomic particle detection.

In essence, cryoelectronics has expanded the horizons of cryophysics and cryotechnics, bringing with it the potential for groundbreaking advancements in scientific research, technology development, and measurement accuracy. Its ability to thrive in the frigid depths of cryogenic conditions has opened up new possibilities for achieving levels of precision that were once considered unattainable.

Cryoelectronics Devices and Materials

Cryoelectronics is a specialized field that deals with electronic devices and materials designed to operate at extremely low temperatures, typically below -150 degrees Celsius (-238 degrees Fahrenheit). These low temperatures are often encountered in applications such as space exploration, quantum computing, and scientific research. Here are some technologies and materials commonly used in cryoelectronics:

Superconductors: Superconducting materials exhibit zero electrical resistance at low temperatures, making them ideal for cryoelectronic applications. High-temperature superconductors (HTS) and low-temperature superconductors (LTS) are used in various devices, including superconducting magnets for particle accelerators and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines. Traditional superconductors are composed of basic metals like niobium, lead, or mercury, and they exhibit superconducting behavior when cooled below a specific “critical temperature,” such as the 4.2 Kelvin critical temperature of mercury. These are referred to as Low Temperature Superconductors (LTS) materials.
Josephson Junctions: These are two layers of superconducting materials separated by a thin insulating layer. Josephson junctions can switch at extremely high frequencies and are used in the development of ultra-sensitive detectors and voltage standards.
Cryogenic Semiconductors: Traditional semiconductor devices like transistors and diodes can function at cryogenic temperatures when carefully designed. These components are used in various applications, including low-noise amplifiers for radio astronomy and space-based observatories.
Cryogenic Insulation: To maintain low temperatures in cryoelectronic systems, effective insulation is essential. Multilayer insulation (MLI) blankets, vacuum chambers, and specialized cryogenic dewars are used to keep heat out and maintain the required low temperatures.
Cryogenic Cooling Systems: Cryocoolers, such as pulse tube and Stirling cryocoolers, are used to maintain and regulate temperatures in cryoelectronic systems. They provide a means to cool down and stabilize the operating conditions of cryogenic devices.
Cryogenic Wiring: Electrical wiring and connectors designed for use at cryogenic temperatures are essential for ensuring the integrity of electrical connections in cryoelectronic systems. These materials are often made from specialized alloys and insulating materials.
Low-Temperature Sensors: Cryogenic sensors, like resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), are used to monitor and measure various physical properties at extremely low temperatures, such as in research experiments or space missions.
Cryogenic Packaging: To protect electronic components from environmental factors, specialized cryogenic packaging is used. This includes vacuum-sealed chambers and materials that can withstand the low temperatures.
Cryogenic Instrumentation: Cryogenic electronics often require custom-designed instrumentation for signal processing and data acquisition. These systems need to operate reliably at cryogenic temperatures and may involve unique designs and materials.
Cryogenic Safety Measures: When working with cryogenic materials and equipment, safety is paramount. Specialized training, protective gear, and safety protocols are essential to prevent accidents and ensure the well-being of personnel.

Cryoelectronics is a challenging but fascinating field that enables scientific discoveries and technological advancements in extreme environments. It requires a deep understanding of both electronic devices and materials capable of withstanding and operating efficiently at cryogenic temperatures. Researchers and engineers in this field continue to develop innovative solutions for various applications, from space exploration to quantum computing.

Cryogenic semiconductors are electronic components specifically designed to operate reliably at extremely low temperatures.

These semiconductors play a crucial role in various applications, including space exploration, scientific research, and quantum computing. Here are some examples of cryogenic semiconductors:

Cryogenic Field-Effect Transistors (FETs): These are specialized transistors designed to function efficiently at cryogenic temperatures. They are commonly used in low-noise amplifiers for radio astronomy, allowing scientists to detect faint cosmic signals without interference from thermal noise.
Cryogenic Diodes: Cryogenic diodes are semiconductor devices that permit the flow of electrical current in one direction. They are employed in cryogenic circuits for rectification and signal processing.
Cryogenic Voltage Regulators: These are voltage regulation devices that maintain a stable output voltage even at cryogenic temperatures. They are crucial for ensuring the proper operation of electronic systems in cryogenic environments.
Cryogenic Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps): Cryogenic Op-Amps are amplifiers optimized for low-temperature applications. They are used in precision measurements and signal processing at cryogenic temperatures, such as in superconducting quantum computing systems.
Cryogenic Digital Logic Gates: Some digital logic gates and integrated circuits (ICs) are designed to function at cryogenic temperatures. These ICs are used in cryogenic control systems and data processing units.
Cryogenic Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs): SiPMs are semiconductor-based detectors used for photon counting in various applications, including particle physics experiments. Cryogenic SiPMs can be used in extremely low-temperature environments to detect and amplify optical signals.
Cryogenic CMOS Sensors: Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) sensors are used in cameras and imaging devices. Cryogenic CMOS sensors are designed to capture images in cryogenic conditions and are used in space telescopes and astronomical observatories.
Cryogenic Transimpedance Amplifiers: These amplifiers are used to convert tiny current signals from cryogenic sensors, such as photodetectors or SQUIDs, into voltage signals that can be further processed and analyzed.
Cryogenic Silicon Carbide (SiC) Power Devices: Silicon carbide power devices are used for high-power and high-frequency applications. Cryogenic SiC power devices can be employed in cryogenic power electronics for efficient energy conversion.
Cryogenic Readout Integrated Circuits (ROICs): ROICs are used to interface with cryogenic sensors and read out their signals. They are essential components in scientific instruments like infrared and X-ray detectors used in space missions.

These examples highlight the diversity of cryogenic semiconductors and their importance in enabling electronic systems to function reliably at extremely low temperatures. Researchers and engineers continue to develop and improve cryogenic semiconductor technologies to support advancements in various fields of science and technology.

Superconductivity Takes Center Stage

One of the most remarkable phenomena in cryogenic electronics is superconductivity. When certain materials are cooled to cryogenic temperatures, they lose all electrical resistance, allowing electric currents to flow without any energy loss. This property can revolutionize various applications, from power transmission, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines, and particle accelerators to quantum computing.

Superconductors were first discovered in 1911 by a Dutch scientist who identified a class of materials capable of conducting electricity without any resistance at temperatures close to absolute zero. These materials, known as superconductors, possess unique properties, including zero resistance to direct current, an incredibly high current carrying capacity, extremely low resistance at high frequencies, minimal signal dispersion, heightened sensitivity to magnetic fields, the ability to exclude externally applied magnetic fields, rapid single flux quantum transfer, and signal transmission close to the speed of light.

Space Exploration and Beyond

Cryogenic electronics are indeed vital for space exploration, as they can withstand the extreme cold of outer space, preventing electronic components from overheating and ensuring the reliability of spacecraft and satellites.

India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission, which successfully landed on the moon but faced challenges with its lander and rover in the extreme lunar environment. The mission, led by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), aimed to explore the moon’s south polar region, an area of scientific interest. The lander and rover initially conducted experiments and data collection but were unable to survive the frigid lunar night due to extreme cold temperatures. Despite this setback, Chandrayaan-3 marked India’s successful landing on the moon, demonstrating ISRO’s resilience and progress in lunar exploration following a previous mission’s crash.

Electronic components and systems designed for low-temperature operation are pivotal for NASA’s forthcoming space exploration missions, offering the advantage of smaller, lighter, and more cost-effective spacecraft. Currently, spacecraft venturing into the frigid realm of deep space rely on a multitude of radioisotope heating units (RHUs) to maintain their electronics at an operational temperature of around 20 degrees Celsius. However, this approach is far from ideal, as RHUs consistently generate heat, even when the spacecraft might already be too warm, necessitating an active thermal control system. Moreover, RHUs are both expensive and demand intricate containment structures.

The integration of electronics capable of functioning at cryogenic temperatures serves a dual purpose: it withstands the challenging conditions of deep space while concurrently diminishing the size and weight of the entire system. By eliminating the need for heating elements, this shift translates into reduced development and launch costs, heightened reliability and lifespan, and enhanced energy densities.

The extreme cold of outer space can be harnessed to cool electronic components, reducing the risk of overheating and ensuring the reliability of spacecraft and satellites. Cryocoolers, which maintain these low temperatures, are essential for keeping instruments and sensors operational in the harsh space conditions.

Medical Marvels

These encompass magnetic levitation transportation systems, where low-temperature electronics can enhance performance, as well as medical diagnostics like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) utilizing superconducting magnets.

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR spectroscopy), also known as magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), is a spectroscopic technique employed to investigate the magnetic fields surrounding atomic nuclei within a sample placed in a magnetic field. By exciting the nuclei with radio waves, the NMR signal is generated, and this resonance is detected using sensitive radio receivers.

Modern NMR spectrometers utilize powerful, large, and costly liquid helium-cooled superconducting magnets to enhance resolution, as the quality of resolution is directly related to the magnetic field strength. However, more cost-effective machines utilizing permanent magnets with slightly lower resolution are available, suitable for specific applications like monitoring chemical reactions and conducting rapid sample analyses. NMR spectroscopy has largely supplanted conventional wet chemistry methods such as color reagent tests and standard chromatography for substance identification.

Nuclear magnetic resonance relies on measuring the absorption of radiofrequency (RF) radiation by atomic nuclei within a strong magnetic field created through superconducting magnets. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an advanced application of NMR that leverages these principles to create detailed images of objects by deciphering the spatial distribution of resonances. MRI is primarily utilized in various healthcare applications.

In the medical field, cryogenic electronics find applications in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines. Superconducting magnets cooled by cryogenic systems create the powerful magnetic fields required for high-quality medical imaging. This not only improves diagnostic capabilities but also enhances patient comfort by reducing scan times.

Power Transmission:

Cryogenic superconductors have a wide range of applications, including power transmission and microwave preamplification. In the realm of power transmission, cryogenic superconductors offer the potential to significantly enhance efficiency. These materials can conduct electricity with zero resistance at extremely low temperatures, typically near absolute zero. By utilizing superconducting cables cooled by cryogenic liquids like nitrogen, it becomes possible to transmit electrical power with minimal losses due to resistance. This can lead to more efficient and cost-effective power distribution systems, reducing energy wastage during transmission.

In urban environments, transmitting power through overhead cables can be challenging, leading to the use of underground cables. However, these underground cables can heat up, increasing their electrical resistance and resulting in power losses. Superconductors offer a solution to enhance power transmission efficiency, albeit requiring the use of cryogenic liquids like nitrogen to cool specialized high-temperature superconductor-based cables designed for increased power transmission.

Notably, there are already some superconducting cables operating within AC networks. Nevertheless, the EU-funded ‘Best Paths’ project has concentrated on investigating High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) solutions for bulk power transmission, featuring a versatile modular design. These superconducting cables can be tailored to match the current and voltage requirements of various power grid specifications. An example of this progress is Nexans’ recent successful qualification testing of a 320kV DC superconducting cable for HVDC power links, capable of transmitting currents up to 10kA with a power transmission capacity of 3.2GW.

The Superconductive Electronics Group at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) specializes in utilizing Josephson junctions within superconducting integrated circuits to advance measurement techniques and standards in fundamental metrology, covering areas like dc and ac voltage, waveform synthesis, and primary thermometry. They also focus on high-performance applications such as energy-efficient computing and RF communications. HYPRES, in collaboration with NIST, has developed all-Niobium (Nb) voltage standard chips, establishing global standards for voltage measurement.

Microwave Preamplification:

In the field of microwave preamplification, cryogenic electronics play a crucial role in reducing noise levels. Cooling amplifiers to cryogenic temperatures is a well-established technique that effectively minimizes thermal noise, which is often the dominant source of noise at microwave frequencies. This cooling process significantly improves the signal-to-noise ratio in microwave applications.

At lower temperatures, the majority carrier devices exhibit reduced leakage current and heightened resistance to latch-up. Furthermore, these devices showcase increased speed due to enhanced carrier mobility and saturation velocity. For instance, power MOSFETs display lower conduction losses at cryogenic temperatures, thanks to the reduction in drain-to-source resistance (RDS(on) resulting from augmented carrier mobility.

Researchers and scientists have employed cryogenic preamplifiers in various domains, particularly in radio astronomy and deep-space communication, where the detection of extremely faint signals from distant celestial objects or spacecraft is essential. By reducing noise, cryogenic preamplification enhances the precision and sensitivity of these instruments, providing valuable insights into the cosmos and enabling reliable communication with space missions.

RF Components

In the realm of cryogenic applications, various RF components play crucial roles in ensuring optimal performance and signal integrity. Here are some key RF components commonly employed in cryogenic settings:

i) Circulators and Isolators:

Circulators and isolators find essential utility in low-power applications within cryogenic environments, particularly in scientific research, testing, measurements, and communications. These components are prized for delivering outstanding RF performance while maintaining an economical and compact form factor. Additionally, custom designs, higher load ratings, and input power options are available to meet specific cryogenic application needs.

ii) Attenuators:

Fixed attenuators tailored for various RF coaxial connectors are indispensable in cryogenic setups. These attenuators come in a wide range of frequency and power ratings, spanning from DC to 65GHz and accommodating power levels from 1 to 300 watts. They are also versatile in terms of body and mounting styles, supporting mixed connector types and genders.

iii) Switches:

Pin diode switches operating within the frequency range of 0.02 to 18 GHz are valuable assets in cryogenic RF systems. These switches are available in diverse configurations, including multi-way switches with TTL control, single pole two-throw, and single pole single-throw switches. They are known for their capability to provide low insertion loss and high isolation, both critical features in cryogenic applications.

iv) Cryogenic RF Cable:

RF cables used in cryogenic settings are typically categorized as either test cables or coaxial cables. Flexible Cryogenic Cables, designed for laboratory equipment usage, prioritize low-loss characteristics, flexibility, and high performance. On the other hand, coaxial cryogenic RF cables, while not strictly semi-rigid in design, offer versatility for subassembly and equipment cabling within cryogenic environments.

These RF components are instrumental in maintaining reliable RF signal transmission and reception in cryogenic applications, ensuring that the unique demands of such environments are met with precision and efficiency.

Quantum Computing’s Cold Revolution

Quantum computers, which promise to solve complex problems at speeds unattainable by classical computers, heavily rely on cryogenic electronics. Quantum bits, or qubits, need to be isolated from their environment to maintain their quantum states. Cryogenic temperatures provide the ideal conditions for achieving this isolation, making breakthroughs in quantum computing possible.

Qubits, the quantum counterparts to classical bits, are highly sensitive and require operation near absolute zero, typically below 100 milliKelvin, with error correction mechanisms to maintain their coherence. This poses significant challenges for the electronics at the quantum-classical interface, which control, read, and process quantum information. Currently, these electronic systems operate at room temperature, necessitating interconnects between cryogenic and room temperature environments. To scale quantum computing, millions of qubits will be needed, increasing the demand for efficient, low-temperature electronics.

Sourcing components for quantum computers, such as Helium-3 and special superconducting cables, presents further challenges. These materials are essential for the operation of quantum computers but are not readily available.

Cryogenic electronics has become indispensable for a diverse range of applications, encompassing classical and quantum computing, as well as cutting-edge technologies like quantum annealing and single-photon detection arrays.

Quantum Sensors

In addition to quantum computing, advances in atom interferometry are paving the way for the development of compact inertial sensors like quantum compasses. These devices use atom interferometry techniques to measure relative positions with high accuracy, making them invaluable for navigation in areas where satellite-based systems are unavailable. Quantum compasses use clouds of laser-frozen atoms to calculate motion, providing tamper-proof and precise positioning in challenging environments.

Cryoelectronic devices include the SQUIDs or the superconducting quantum interference devices, which represent magnetic sensors of highest sensitivity.

Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) represent a remarkable class of instruments known for their unparalleled sensitivity in detecting magnetic flux and fields, pushing the boundaries of energy sensitivity towards the quantum limit. These devices find extensive utility across a spectrum of applications, encompassing biomagnetism, magnetic microscopy, non-destructive evaluation, geophysics, quantum information, and nanoscience. This capability has far-reaching implications, extending to geophysical mineral and oil exploration, the detection of ordnance and weapons (UXO), maritime intrusion detection, and Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW).

In materials evaluation, SQUIDs are employed to investigate the magnetic properties of materials, aiding in the development of new materials and understanding their behavior at the atomic and molecular levels. Furthermore, SQUIDs are essential in geological prospecting, where they can detect and analyze magnetic anomalies beneath the Earth’s surface. This capability is particularly useful in identifying valuable mineral deposits and understanding the geological composition of an area.

In the realm of medical diagnostics, SQUIDs play a crucial role in techniques such as magnetoencephalography (MEG) and magnetocardiography (MCG). These non-invasive methods rely on SQUIDs to measure the weak magnetic fields generated by the human brain and heart. This provides valuable insights into neurological and cardiac activities, aiding in the diagnosis and treatment of various medical conditions.

Overall, SQUIDs’ remarkable sensitivity and versatility make them indispensable tools in scientific research, materials science, geophysics, and medical applications, contributing significantly to our understanding of the natural world and improving healthcare diagnostics.

These advancements underscore the critical role of cryogenic electronics in enabling high-precision measurement techniques and facilitating the realization of quantum computing’s potential, thereby reshaping the landscape of modern electronics and scientific exploration.

Overcoming Challenges

Implementing electronics at the extremely low temperatures of 4 K or -269°C presents a formidable challenge, given that most electronic components are designed for operation within the industrial temperature range, down to -55°C.

Extensive research has explored various technologies for realizing cryogenic electronics, including GaAs high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs), SiGe heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) devices, and custom semiconductor solutions. However, the most dependable and widely used technology for crafting integrated circuits in this context is CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor). CMOS not only enables the integration of billions of transistors but also offers low power consumption and exceptional reliability, even demonstrating operability at temperatures as frigid as 100 mK. This resilience makes CMOS the preferred choice for pushing the boundaries of cryogenic electronics.

Recent Breakthroughs

In 2022, researchers at MIT developed a new type of cryogenic transistor that is 100 times faster than conventional cryogenic transistors.

Cryogenic transistors are essential components for building quantum computers. Quantum computers are a new type of computer that uses the principles of quantum mechanics to perform calculations. Quantum computers have the potential to be much faster than conventional computers, and they could be used to solve problems that are currently intractable for conventional computers.

The cryogenic transistors developed by MIT researchers are 100 times faster than conventional cryogenic transistors. This means that they could be used to build quantum computers that are much faster than existing quantum computers. This could lead to new breakthroughs in fields such as medicine, materials science, and finance.

In 2023, researchers at Google AI developed a new type of cryogenic artificial intelligence accelerator that is 100 times more energy-efficient than conventional AI accelerators.

Cryogenic artificial intelligence accelerators are used to train and run large AI models. AI models are used in a wide range of applications, including facial recognition, natural language processing, and machine translation. Cryogenic AI accelerators can train and run AI models more efficiently than conventional AI accelerators. This could lead to new advances in fields such as healthcare, transportation, and customer service.

The cryogenic AI accelerator developed by Google AI researchers is 100 times more energy-efficient than conventional AI accelerators. This means that it can be used to train and run large AI models more cheaply and sustainably. This could enable the widespread adoption of AI in new industries and applications.

In 2023, researchers at IBM developed a new type of cryogenic memory chip that can store 100 times more data than conventional memory chips.

Cryogenic memory chips are used to store data in computers and other electronic devices. Cryogenic memory chips can store much more data than conventional memory chips. This could lead to new advances in fields such as data analytics, artificial intelligence, and scientific computing.

The cryogenic memory chip developed by IBM researchers can store 100 times more data than conventional memory chips. This could enable the development of new types of high-performance computing systems that can handle massive datasets. This could lead to new breakthroughs in fields such as drug discovery, climate modeling, and financial forecasting.

Overall, the three breakthroughs have the potential to revolutionize a wide range of industries. They could lead to new advances in fields such as medicine, materials science, finance, healthcare, transportation, customer service, data analytics, artificial intelligence, and scientific computing.

Conclusion

Cryogenic electronics represents a frontier where technology meets extreme conditions. With applications spanning quantum computing, space exploration, medical imaging, and more, this field is poised to revolutionize multiple industries. While challenges remain, the promise of enhanced performance, efficiency, and reliability drives ongoing research and innovation in cryogenic electronics. As we continue to explore the capabilities of extreme cold, the possibilities for future breakthroughs are limitless.

References and Resources also include:

https://www.sensortips.com/featured/electronics-that-operate-in-cryogenic-cold/